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PEEPAEIKG  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

An  Elementary  Textbook 
in  Civics 


BY 


WILLIAM  BACKUS  GUITTEAU,  Ph.D. 

Author  of  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Toledo,  Ohio 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


BOSTON    NEW  YORK    CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 


TO  THE  TEACHERS  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS 

ON  WHOM  CHIEFLY  DEVOLVES  THE  GREAT  PRIVILEGE 

OF  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

THE  YOUTH  OF  OUR  LAND 


COPYRIGHT,    1913,  BY  WILLIAM   BACKUS  GUITTEAU 
ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 


SIXTEENTH  IMPRESSION  AUGUST  I919 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U    .   S   .    A 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

At  the  close  of  each  chapter  in  the  text,  the  teacher 
will  find  questions  and  topics  for  further  study  and 
investigation.  The  more  simple  investigations  only 
should  be  undertaken  in  classes  composed  of  the 
younger  pupils.  Care  should  be  exercised,  also,  in 
selecting  only  questions  of  especial  interest  to  the 
particular  community ;  for  example,  rural  schools  will 
naturally  omit  many  questions  pertaining  to  urban 
conditions,  and  vice  versa. 

As  a  rule,  it  will  be  best  to  assign  one  question  to 
each  pupil,  or  to  a  group  of  pupils,  to  be  reported  on 
at  a  future  date.  The  teacher  should  suggest  sources 
of  information  for  pupils  to  make  use  of  in  their  in- 
vestigations. Often  the  parents,  or  older  brothers  and 
sisters,  can  give  the  necessary  help ;  or,  again,  it  may 
be  advisable  to  consult  local  officials  for  information 
concerning^  their  work. 

Members  of  the  class  should  be  encouraged  to  visit 
township,  county,  and  municipal  offices  ;  and  local 
officials  should  be  invited  to  come  before  the  class 
and  describe  the  business  of  their  departments. 
Added  interest  may  be  secured  by  organizing  the 
class  into  a  town  meeting,  or  as  a  city  council.  State 
legislature,  or  branch  of  Congress.  A  bulletin  board 
in  the  classroom  for  newspaper  clippings  pertaining 
to  governmental  affairs  will  prove  interesting  and 
helpful. 

4S0971 


vi  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

In  order  to  make  the  study  of  government  concrete 
and  vital,  the  largest  possible  use  should  be  made  of 
such  material  as  town  warrants,  legislative  bills,  sam- 
ple ballots,  presidential  messages,  and  the  like.  A 
detailed  list  of  material  for  this  purpose  is  given  in 
the  appendix. 

In  the  appendix  will  also  be  found  suggested  read- 
ings, most  of  which  are  intended  for  older  pupils,  and 
for  teachers  who  desire  further  information  on  topics 
discussed  in  the  text.  For  each  chapter,  however, 
several  elementary  readings  are  cited,  which  may  be 
undertaken  by  pupils  in  the  grammar  grades.  Each 
room  should  be  equipped  with  at  least  a  few  standard 
books  on  government,  and  pupils  should  be  taught 
to  consult  these  as  reference  works. 

At  all  times  the  teacher  should  bear  in  mind  that 
government  is  to  be  studied  as  a  living  organism, 
stress  being  placed  upon  the  spirit  and  functions  of 
government  rather  than  upon  its  form.  Throughout 
this  book,  special  attention  has  been  given  to  the  ac- 
tivities of  government,  and  to  the  reciprocal  obliga- 
tions of  government  and  the  citizen.  Emphasis,  too, 
has  been  placed  upon  the  ethical  side  of  civics,  upon 
what  is  sometimes  called  political  morality.  For  it  is 
now  generally  conceded  that  the  chief  value  in  the 
subject  of  civics  lies  not  in  the  mere  teaching  of 
facts  about  government,  but  rather  in  creating  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  high  ideals  of  citizenship  and  of 
political  conduct. 

Toledo,  Ohio. 

February  18, 191  a 


CONTENTS 

GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  CITIZEN 

I.  How  AND  Why  Governments  are  Formed 
II.  What  Government   Does   for  the   Citizen,   and 

What  the  Citizen   Owes  to  his   Government    13 

III.  The  Selection  of  Public  Officials       ....    22 

IV.  Political  Parties  and  their  Work      ....    31 

STATE  AND  LOCAL  GOVERNMENTS 

V.  The  Protection  of  the  Public 41 

VL  Public  Education 67 

VII.   Public  Charities 70 

VIII.  Government  and  Industry 76 

IX.  Town  and  County  Government 90 

X.  The  Government  of  Cities 99 

XL  The  State  Governments 117 

XII.  How  the  Expenses  of  Government  are  Met..      .  136 

THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT 

XIII.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States   .      .      .  152 

XIV.  Congress  and  its  Work 163 

XV.   The  President  and  his  Cabinet 177 

XVI.   The  Federal  Courts 193 

XVII.   Commerce  and  Money 201 

IVIII.   Territories  and  Public  Lands.      .      •      .      •      .  217 

XIX.   Our  National  Ideals 220 


viii  CONTENTS 

APPENDIX 

A.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States     .      .      .      .       i 

B.  Area  and  Population   of   Territories    and    Insular 

Possessions xrii 

C.  Area,  Population,  Electoral  Votes  of  the  States        .  xviii 

D.  Illustrative   Material   for   the   Study   of   Govern- 

ment         xix 

E.  Reference  Books xx-xxxi 

Indbx xzxiii 


y 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

A  River  Bank  in  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.       .      .      .      .      .      .  4 

Another  View  of  the  Same  Bank  after  Improvement  .  4 
Bank  of   St.  Mary's   River,   Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  before 

Improvement 5 

The  Same  Spot  One  Year  Later 5 

A  Congested  Tenement-House  Section  in  New  York  .      •  16 

A  View  in  Central  Park,  New  York 16 

One  of  the  Many  Playgrounds  in  Chicago  ....  17 
One  of  the  Reservoirs    in  Boston's   System  of   Water 

Supply 17 

Voters  waiting  at  the  Polls 26 

Casting  the  Ballot 26 

A  Voting  Machine 27 

A  Street-cleaning  Squad  at  work 48 

An  Automobile  Fire-Engine  of  the  Latest  Type        .      .  48 

Milk  Inspection  at  a  Retail  Store 49 

Physical  Examination  for  Working  Papers    ....  49 

Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburgh 68 

The  New  York  State  Education  Building  at  Albany     .  58 

High  School,  Duluth,  Minn 59 

A  Grammar  School  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y 59 

A  Planting  Machine  at  work 76 

The  Dairy  Car  of  the  "Better  Farming  Special"    .      .  76 

An  Early  Attempt  at  Irrigation 77 

Present  Methods  of  Irrigation 77 

The  Original  Mulberry  Street  Bridge,  Harrisburg,  Pa.  82 

The  Present  Mulberry  Street  Viaduct 82 

The  Result  of  Scientific  Forestry 83 


X  ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  Work  of  a  Freshet 83 

An  Old-fashioned  Country  Road 94 

The  Same  Road  reconstructed  and  maintained  by  the 

State 94 

The  Old  County  Jail  at  Mobile,  Ala 95 

The  New  Mobile  County  Court  House 95 

"Before"  and  "After"  the  Park  was  built  ....  102 
The  City  Hall  and  Cook  County  Court  House  at  CtiiCAGO  103 

The  City  Hall  at  Portland,  Maine 103 

The  New  York  State  Capitol  at  Albany 120 

The  Ohio  State  Capitol  at  Columbus 120 

The  Colorado  State  Capitol,  Denver 121 

The  Massachusetts  State  House,  Boston 121 

The  Capitol  of  the  United  States,  Washington,  D.  C.   .  168 

The  Office  Building  of  the  Senate 168 

The  National  Senate  Chamber 169 

Hall  of  the  National  House  of  Representatives       .      .  169 

The  White  House 176 

The  State,  War,  and  Navy  Departments 176 

The  Post-0 ffice  Department 177 

The  Treasury  Department 177 

Opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  August  15,  1914  .  .  .  202 
A  Lock  in  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Ship  Canal.  .  .  .  203 
A  Part  of  the  Queensboro  Bridge,  New  York     .      .      .  203 

Map  of  the  United  States 218 

U.  S.  Battleship  Oklahoma 219 

The  United  States  and  its  Possessions      .      .      .      .      .  219 


The  publishers  acknowledge  the  courtesy  of  The  American  City,  New  York, 
in  allowing  them  to  use  the  illustrations  facing  pages  5,  82,  and  95.  The  illustra- 
tions facing  page  26  are  from  photographs  by  Paul  Thompson,  New  York. 


CASTING  THE  FIRST  VOTE 

From  mountain  homes  engirdled 
By  shadowy  gloom  of  pines, 

From  hamlets  whence  the  fisher's  boat 

Sets  sail  o'er  stormf ul  seas  to  float ; 
From  darkling  depth  of  mines, 

A  host  come  forth  to  cast  their  vote, 
A  host  in  marshaled  lines. 

Clear-eyed,  strong-limbed,  and  sturdy. 
These  honest  sons  of  toil,  — 

They  hold  the  ballot  like  a  prayer, 

Uplifted  through  the  fateful  air, 
That  none  our  land  may  spoil. 

In  their  young  manhood  everywhere 
They  rise  to  guard  the  soil. 

From  cloistered  halls  of  study, 
From  classroom  and  debate, 

With  chastened  look  and  mien  severe, 

Another  army  draweth  near. 
In  patriot  hope  elate,  — 

The  vote  they  drop,  a  pledge  sincere 
To  love  and  serve  the  State. 

Up  from  the  busy  cities, 

From  many  a  thronging  street, 

Come  reinforcements  brave  and  strong ; 

And,  like  the  rhythm  of  a  song, 
I  hear  their  marching  feet,  — 

To  aid  the  weak,  to  right  the  wrong, 
Nor  meanly  to  retreat. 


rii  CASTING  THE  FIRST  VOTE 

God  bless  the  pure  endeavor, 
God  guide  the  earnest  thought ; 

God  lead  these  youthful  columns  on, 

Where  only  Freedom's  fights  are  won, 
And  Freedom's  glory  sought,  — 

Where  Truth's  light-bringers  forward  run, 
And  Truth's  brave  deeds  are  wrought. 

Margaret  E.  Sangster. 


PREPAEmG  FOE  OITIZEKSHIP 

CHAPTER  I 

HOW  AND  WHY  GOVERNMENTS  ARE  FORMED 

1.  Organization  of  the  School  City.  Ten  or  twelve 
years  ago  the  pupils  of  a  certain  school,  wishing  to 
learn  in  a  practical  way  something  of  the  actual  work- 
ings of  government,  decided  to  organize  a  "  school 
city."    Accordingly  they  selected   several  of   their 
number  as  delegates  to  meet  in  convention,  and  draw 
up  a  plan  for  carrying  on  the  work  which  the  school 
city  was  to  perform.     Every  boy  knows  that  you 
cannot  carry  on  a   baseball  game  without  certain 
rules  for  the  players;  and  so  the  members  of  this 
school  city,  about  to  engage  in  a  more  seri-  Theconsu- 
ous  game,  agreed  to  abide  by  certain  rules  Se^sciwoi 
which  they  called  the  constitution  of  their  ^'"y 
city.    In  other  words,  their  constitution  established 
the  rules  of  the  game. 

2.  The  Government  of  the  School  City.  These 
rules  provided  that  each  room  of  the  building  should 
be  organized  as  a  ward,  and  that  the  pupils  of  each 
ward  should  elect  one  of  their  number  to  represent 
them  in  the  council,  or  legislative  hody,  of  Legislative 
the  school  city.  This  council  was  given  *°*^ 
power  to  make  rules  or  orders  in  matters  which  con- 
cerned the  general  welfare  of  the  school.  Then  all 


2  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

^  ■  the  ptijiils  'oL'the  building  assembled  in  their  audito- 
!. :  .i'ium;;andrchose'^ertain  executive  officers, whose  duty 
' Executive  '  'it'wa's'to  Carry  out  the  orders  of  the  council, 
officers  ^^^  ^Q  conduct  the  business  of  the  school 
city.  The  principal  executive  officer,  or  mayor,  was 
a  pupil  in  the  highest  class,  chosen  on  account  of 
his  popularity  and  his  excellent  record.  "Always 
truthful,  always  considerate  of  others,  always  earnest 
in  his  work,  manly,  and  courageous,"  — these  were 
the  qualities  pointed  to  by  the  boy  who  nominated 
the  successful  candidate  as  rendering  him  worthy  of 
the  highest  office  in  the  school  city. 

After  electing  their  mayor,  this  assemblage  of 
young  citizens  proceeded  to  select  other  officials,  one 
of  the  most  important  of  whom  was  a  sanitary  officer. 
It  was  the  duty  of  the  sanitary  chief,  aided  by  his  as- 
sistants, to  look  after  the  cleanliness  of  both  building 
^,    ,.        and  pupils.  If  a  boy  came  to  his  room  with 

uleanlliiess  *■     ^  j 

In  all  muddy  shoes    or  dirty  hands,  the  sanitary 

officers  sent  him  down  to  the  basement  for 
improvement ;  if  pupils  threw  scraps  of  paper  on  the 
floor,  instead  of  into  the  waste-basket,  or  had  untidy 
coat-rooms,  that  ward  was  in  disgrace  with  the  sani- 
tary chief,  who  reported  the  situation  to  the  council. 
Cleanliness,  as  next  to  godliness,  was  insisted  upon 
throughout  the  school  city.  This  meant  moral  clean- 
liness, as  well  as  physical;  and  so  impure  words,  im- 
pure thoughts,  and  falsehood  in  any  form,  were  alike 
forbidden. 

Each  day  several  of  the  city's  officers  were  detailed 
to  inspect  the  ranks  as  the  pupils  marched  out  of 
the  building;   and  the  class  which  marched  in  the 


HOW  AND  WHY  GOVERNMENTS  ARE  FORMED    3 

most  soldierly  fashion  during  the  month  was  per- 
mitted to  carry  the  school  banner  for  the  following 
month.  The  citizens  of  this  city  realized  that  Rewards jor 
pupils  ought  not  to  be  tardy  at  school,  and  ®«eiieiice 
ought  never  to  be  absent  unless  ill ;  and,  accordingly, 
the  council  voted  that  special  mention  should  be 
made  each  month  of  that  ward  or  class  which  had 
the  best  record  for  attendance  and  punctuality. 

3.  The  City's  Watchword  —  Self-Control.  And 
then,  most  important  of  all,  the  council  decided  that 
the  watchword  of  the  school  city  should  be 
"self-control";  that  throughout  their  en-  the  watch- 
tire  school  course  pupils  should  keep  this 
word  before  them  as  their  ideal,  beinir  well-behaved 
and  orderly,  not  because  their  teacher  insisted  upon  it, 
but  because  without  good  order  and  upright  conauet 
they  could  not  master  their  lessons  or  be  worthy  citi- 
zens of  their  school  city.  If  any  pupil  forgot  this 
principle,  his  carelessness  was  promptly  frowned  upon 
by  his  fellow  citizens,  for  they  realized  that  the  selfish- 
ness of  an  individual  must  not  be  allowed  to  interfere 
with  the  welfare  of  i  he  community. 

In  this  way  the  ideal  of  self-control  and  mutual 
helpfulness  spread  among  the  pupils  of  this  school; 
they  found  that  the  hard  lessons  were  mas-  what  seii- 
tered   more  readily  when  each  citizen  was  Jo^he*^^? 
doing  his  full  duty,  no  one  shirking  or  idling.  »"» 
Their  teachers  were  enabled  to  do  better  work  than 
ever  before,  for  pupils  and  teachers  alike  were  now  in- 
spired by  one  spirit  and  purpose  —  unselfish  devotion 
to  the  school  city.  And  so  the  life  of  this  school  became 
more  pleasant  and  effective  in  a  thousand  ways ;  the 


4  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

fame  of  the  new  school  city  spread  over  all  the  State, 
and  finally  throughout  the  entire  United  States. 
Hundreds  of  other  schools,  inspired  by  this  example, 
organized  similar  school  cities,  and  taught  their  citi- 
zens the  great  lessons  of  self-help  and  self-control. 

4.  Importance  of  Self -Control  in  all  Communities. 

Now  this  principle  of  self-control  is  just  as  important 

in  the  lars^er  w^orld  outside,  as  in  the  little 

Why  gov-  IT-         1-1  T  TPi 

emment  Is    school  world  in  whicli  you  now  live.  If  the 

necessary  .  .  «  -x       1        u    • 

grown-up  citizens  oi  a  community  should  sim- 
ply follow  their  own  inclinations  without  any  regard 
for  the  public  welfare,  no  man's  life  or  property  would 
be  safe,  and  progress  of  any  kind  would  be  impossible. 
What  inducement  could  there  be  for  a  man  to  labor, 
if  any  individual  stronger  than  himself  might  rob  him 
of  what  he  produced  ?  Have  you  ever  considered  what 
anarchy  would  prevail,  if  there  were  no  public  agency 
to  punish  wrongdoers,  and  if  each  individual  had  to 
seek  out  and  punish  the  man  who  stole  his  property 
or  otherwise  injured  him  ?  Thus  the  protection  of  life 
and  property  is  the  first  great  need  which  must  be 
met  before  progress  of  any  kind  is  possible ;  and  it 
was  to  meet  this  supreme  need  that  governments  were 
first  organized. 

In  very  early  times,  men  were  almost  constantly  at 
war,  and  naturally  the  best  fighter  was  chosen  as  the 
Origin  0!  chieftain  or  leader  of  his  tribe.  War  demands 
government  implicit  obedience  on  the  part  of  soldiers  to 
the  commands  of  their  leader.  Having  accustomed 
men  to  obey  him  in  war,  the  chieftain's  authority  be- 
comes established  in  time  of  peace  as  well,  and  this 
is  the  beginning  of  government. 


A  RIVER  BANK  IN  WILKESBARRE,   PA. 
Neglected  and  used  as  a  dump  for  rubbish. 


i 


ANOTHER  VIEW  OF  THE  SAME  BANK  AFTER  IMPROVEMENT 
A  promenade,  flower-beds,  and  boat-houses  make  it  an  attractive  spot. 


Courtesy,  The  American  City. 
BANK   OP  ST.   MARY'S  RIVER,   FORT   WAYNE,  IND.,  BEFORE  IMPROVEMENT 

A  rubbish  dump,  guarded  by  billboards. 


1 

IHH^^Bii^''  11 — ' 

rr^j 

Courtesy,  The  American  City. 
THE   SAME  SPOT  ONE  YEAR  LATER 


HOW  AND  WHY  GOVERNMENTS  ARE  FORMED    5 

Gradually  these  early  tribes  became  more  civilized. 
They  gave  up  their  wandering  mode  of  life  as  hunters 
and  fishermen,  settled  upon  a  definite  terri- 
tory,  and  commenced  to  cultivate  the  soil,  ernments 
After  much   warfare    and   bloodshed,  some 
strong  chieftain   would   extend   his  authority  over 
neighboring  tribes,  and  become  the  acknowledged 
ruler  of  a  large  territory.  In  this  way  such  countries 
as  France  and  Great  Britain  had  their  orio-in. 

5.  Who  is  to  nin  the  Government  ?  Thus  we  per- 
ceive that  early  government  was  something  imposed 
from  above.   The  strongest  warrior  became 
the  ruler,  and  this  authority  became  hered-  single  indk 

vldu&l 

itary  in  his  family,  so  that  on  the  death  of 
the  ruler  or  king,  his  power  descended  to  his  eldest 
son.  We  see,  too,  that  the  real  governing  authority 
was  held  by  this  single  individual,  the  people  as  a 
whole  having  very  little  to  say  about  the  matter.  As 
late  as  the  seventeenth  century,  the  French  king, 
Louis  XIV,  is  reported  to  have  said :  "  The  State  ?  I 
am  the  State ! "  In  other  words,  Louis  XIV  considered 
himself  the  government,  and  would  not  admit  that 
the  business  of  government  concerned  the  people  at 
all.  In  Great  Britain  the  Stuart  kings  even  claimed 
that  they  ruled  by  divine  right  —  that  God  himself 
had  ordained  them  rulers  of  the  people. 

Now  in  early  times  it  was  necessary  that  order  and 
law  should  be  established  in  the  person  of  a  single 
individual,  for  even  tyrannical  government  control  by 
is  better  than  no  government  at  all.   But  «ie  people 
after  society  had  become  accustomed  to  order  and 
obedience,  men  were  unwilling  to  submit  to  the  ab- 


e  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

solute  control  of  a  single  individual,  and  wished  to 
have  a  voice  in  their  government.  Later  you  will  learn 
that  a  great  part  of  the  world's  history  is  made  up  of 
this  struggle  on  the  part  of  the  people  to  secure  in 
their  own  hands  the  control  of  government;  while 
throughout  the  ages,  kings  and  princes  have  striven 
to  retain  for  themselves  the  ruling  power.  At  the 
present  time,  even  in  most  European  monarchies,  the 
actual  power  of  government  has  been  transferred 
from  the  king  to  the  people  themselves.  Hence  such 
countries  as  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Italy  are 
called  constitutional  or  limited  monarchies,  because 
the  power  of  the  rulers  is  limited  by  a  constitution  in 
which  the  will  of  the  people  is  expressed. 

6.  Early  Govenmient  in  America.  In  our  own 
country,  the  control  of  government  from  the  earliest 
NewBng-  times  has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  people, 
lana  towns  rpj^^  sturdy  piouccrs  who  came  to  the  new 
world  in  the  seventeenth  century  were  seeking  a  land 
where  they  might  have  greater  freedom  —  freedom 
to  worship  according  to  their  own  conscience,  freedom 
to  manage  the  business  of  government  as  best  suited 
their  own  needs.  The  colonists  who  came  to  the  New 
England  coast  settled  in  small,  compact  communities 
known  as  towns,  each  having  its  own  church,  and  its 
blockhouse  for  defense  against  the  Indians.  The  resi- 
dents of  each  town  met  together  in  tow7i-ineeting  to 
pass  rules  for  their  government  .and  to  elect  local  of- 
ficers. Since  the  residents  of  each  town  decided  all 
important  matters  by  their  votes  in  town-meeting,  the 
government  was  a  pure  democracy  ;  that  is,  it  was  2l 
government  carried  on  by  the  people  themselves.  This 


HOW  AND  WHY  GOVERNMENTS  ARE  FORMED     7 

feype  of  government  is  adapted  only  to  small,  com- 
pactly settled  communities,  in  which  the  voters  can 
readily  assemble  to  decide  matters  of  common  concern. 

At  the  South,  the  early  colonists  did  not  settle  in 
small  communities  as  in  New  England,  but  scattered 
over  a  wide  area.  As  the  houses  of  the  plant- 
ers were  miles  apart,  it  was  impossible  for  emmentat 
them  to  manage  their  local  affairs  in  town- 
meeting,  as  did  the  New  England  settlers.  So  these 
Southern  colonists  established  county  government  for 
the  management  of  their  local  affairs.  The  powers  of 
government  were  not  exercised  directly  by  the  voters, 
but  were  entrusted  to  eight  men,  who  composed  the 
county  court.  The  counties  were  much  larger  than 
the  New  England  towns,  but  performed  similar  work. 
They  looked  after  local  matters,  such  as  education, 
the  construction  of  roads,  the  care  of  the  poor,  and 
the  levy  and  collection  of  taxes. 

Both  the  towns  of  New  England  and  the  counties 
at  the  South  were  under  the  control  of  colo- 
nial governments.    Each   of  these  thirteen  govem- 
colonial  governments  had  its  legislature  and 
its  governor,  in  charge  of  matters  of  especial  inter- 
est to  that  colony. 

All  the  thirteen  colonies  were  subject  to  the  au- 
thority of  Great  Britain.  So  the  American 
colonist  lived  under  three  governments:  first,  ofgovern- 
his  local  government,  that  of  his  town   or  "^*^*' 
county;  second,  his  colonial  government;  and  third, 
the  government  of  Great  Britain. 

7.  The  Declaration  of  Independence.    Although 
Great  Britain  claimed  supreme  authority  over  her 


8  PREPARING  FOR  aXIZENSHIP 

American  colonies,  and  the  British  Parliament  de- 
clared its  right  to  legislate  for  them  on  all  subjects,  as 
Revolt  of  the  ^  matter  of  fact  the  colonists  managed  their 
ooionies  affairs  largely  as  they  saw  fit.  Great  Britain 
was  too  far  away  and  too  busy  with  affairs  in  Europe 
to  exercise  much  real  control ;  so  that  when  she  finally 
attempted  to  assert  her  authority  on  the  subject  of 
taxation,  the  colonists  rebelled,  and  the  Eevolution 
followed.  By  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
adoption  of  which  we  celebrate  every  Fourth  of  July, 
the  colonies  became  free  and  independent  States 
(July  4,  1776). 

Shortly  afterwards  the  colonies,  now  independent 
States,  united  under  a  form  of  union  known  as  the  Arti- 
cles of  Confederation  (March  1, 1781).  This 

Articles  of  .  \  .'  ^ 

Oonfedera-    union  proved  Weak  and  uiisatisiactory ;  and 
so  a  few  years  later  a  new  constitution  was 
adopted,  which  established  our  government  in    its 
present  form. 

8.  Our  Three  Sets  of  Governments.  So  the  people 
of  the  United  States  to-day,  like  the  early  colonists, 
National,  li^e  under  three  governments.  First,  a  na- 
focaigo?-  tional  government,  which  carries  on  affairs 
ernmemts  which  concern  the  nation  as  a  whole — for- 
eign relations,  the  mail,  control  of  territories,  public 
lands,  money,  and  commerce.  Second,  the  State  gov- 
ernments, which  control  such  matters  as  education, 
contracts,  the  holding  and  transfer  of  property,  regu^ 
lation  of  business,  and  the  punishment  of  crime.  Third, 
the  local  governments  (counties,  townships,  villages, 
and  cities),  which  are  under  the  direct  control  of  the 
State  governments.    These  local  governments  have 


HOW  AND  WHY  GOVERNMENTS  ARE  FORMED    fl 

charge  of  affairs  which  directly  concern  the  people 
of  each  local  community,  as  the  building  of  roads  and 
bridges,  the  care  of  the  poor,  maintenance  of  schools, 
provision  for  water-supply,  street  paving  and  lighting. 

9.  The  National  Government.  You  have  learned 
in  your  study  of  history  that  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  was  framed  in  1787  by  a  con-  National 
vention  which  included  many  of  America's  constitution 
greatest  leaders,  and  was  afterwards  ratified  by  con- 
ventions held  in  each  of  the  thirteen  States.  Accord- 
ingly this  constitution  is  the  foundation  on  which 
our  national  government  rests ;  and,  with  the  seven- 
teen amendments  which  have  since  been  added,  forms 
the  supreme  law  of  the  land. 

Our  constitution  provides  for  a  national  govern- 
ment consisting  of  three  departments,  legislative,  ex- 
ecutive, and  iudicial.  Lesfislative  powers  are 

.      1  ,      •'  V  •   1  •  p  ^^'®®  depart- 

exercised  by  Congress,  which  consists  01  two  mentsoi 
houses.  The  smaller  house,  or  Senate,  is  ^°^®"^®^ 
composed  of  ninety-six  members,  two  being  chosen 
by  the  voters  of  each  State.  In  the  larger  body,  the 
House  of  Representatives,  each  State  is  represented 
in  proportion  to  its  population.  Executive  authority 
is  vested  in  a  President,  who  is  chosen  by  indirect 
election  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  President  ap- 
points an  advisory  body  of  ten  members,  known  as 
the  cabinet.  The  judicial  department  consists  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  nine  members,  which  sits  at  Wash- 
ington, together  with  lower  courts  which  try  cases 
arising  in  different  parts  of  the  Union. 

10.  The  State  Governments,  In  many  respects  the 
State  governments  (now  forty-eight  in  number)  re- 


10  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSfflP 

semble  the  national  government.  Each  State  has  its 
Tiiree  de-  ^^^  constitution,  which  establishes  the  three 
partmenta  departments  of  government,  —  legislative,  ex- 
ecutive, and  judicial. 

The  legislature,  or  law-making  body,  consists  of 
two  houses,  and  meets  at  the  State  capital.  Its  mem- 
,    , ,         bers  are  elected  by  the  voters  from  districts 

Loglslatuxe    .  .  ... 

into  which  the  State  is  divided. 
The  chief  executive  officer  of   the   State  is  the 
governor,  whose  position  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Pre- 
sident. The  s:overnor  is  assisted  in  his  work 
of  executing  the  laws  by  numerous  officials, 
some  of  whom  he  appoints,  while  many  others  are 
elected  by  the  voters. 

State  courts  of  several  grades  are  provided  for  the 
trial  of  cases  arising  under  State  laws ;  so  that  if  a 
^  man  steals  the  property  of  another,  or  if  one 

state  courts  r      r       j  7 

refuses  to  carry  out  an  agreement  or  contract 
which  he  has  made,  justice  may  be  obtained  by  the 
injured  party  through  the  aid  of  the  courts. 

II.  Local  Governments.  Nearer  to  the  citizen  than 
the  government  of  his  State,  or  the  still  more  remote 
government  at  Washington,  is  the  local  government 
which  supplies  so  many  of  our  public  needs.  When 
you  pass  along  a  macadamized  road  or  a  paved  street 
on  your  way  to  school,  you  are  using  a  public  con- 
venience provided  by  your  local  government.  If  you 
ask  yourselves  the  questions,  Who  protects  this  com- 
munity from  fire  and  theft?  Who  builds  its  roads 
and  bridges?  Who  constructs  and  maintains  its  public 
schools  and  libraries  ?  Who  provides  its  parks,  boule- 
vards, and  water-supply  ?  —  the  answer  in  every  case 


HOW  AND  WHY  GOVERNMENTS  ARE  FORMED    11 

is,  that  these  public  necessities  are  supplied  by  your 
local  government.  If  you  live  in  a  city  or  village,  the 
local  government  of  greatest  importance  to  you  is  the 
city  or  village  government.  In  rural  communities,  es- 
pecially in  New  England  and  the  central  States,  much 
of  the  work  of  local  government  is  performed  by  the 
town  or  township.  All  of  us,  whether  residing  in 
cities,  villages,  or  in  the  country,  live  under  county 
governments,  which  carry  on  such  important  functions 
as  the  recording  of  deeds  and  mortgages,  the  local 
administration  of  justice,  and  the  collection  of  taxes. 
Since  local  governments  supply  the  needs  which 
concern  us  so  greatly  in  our  everyday  life,  it  is  of 
vital  importance  that  the  local  of&cials  whom 
we  elect  shall  be  honest  and  capable.  Other-  oiiocaigov- 

I  11  1       I     1   emment 

Wise  we  may  have  poor  schools,  neglected 
streets,  an  inadequate  or  impure  water-supply;  or 
worse  still,  dishonest  officials  may  accept  bribes  and 
sacrifice  the  interests  of  the  community  in  a  thousand 
ways.  The  cost  of  this  dishonesty  and  inefficiency  is 
always  paid  by  the  taxpayers.  Through  the  careless- 
ness of  the  voters  of  New  York  City,  a  group  of  dis- 
honest men,  known  as  "  The  Tweed  Ring,"  gained 
complete  control  of  the  city  government  during  the 
years  1865  to  1871.  As  a  result  of  their  corrupt 
management,  the  debt  of  the  city  was  increased  by 
$81,000,000,  for  which  the  city  received  little  return. 
The  county  building  remains  as  a  permanent  monu- 
ment of  their  extravagance  and  dishonesty,  still  in- 
complete after  having  cost  the  taxpayers  over  thir- 
teen million  dollars. 


12  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 


QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Explain  why  government  is  necessary.  Why  is  the  study  of 
government  important  to  every  citizen  ? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  obligations  of  the  individual  toward 
government  ?  Of  government  toward  individuals  ? 

3.  What  is  a  constitution  ?  Who  adopts  it,  and  what  is  it  for  ? 

4.  What  are  the  three  departments  of  government,  and  what  does 
each  do  ? 

6.  What  work,  in  general,  is  performed  by  the  national  govern- 
ment ?  By  the  State  and  local  governments  ?  Make  a  list  of 
the  services  performed  by  each  of  these  governments. 


CHAPTER  n 

WHAT   GOVERNMENT   DOES   FOR   THE    CITIZEN,    AND 
WHAT   THE    CITIZEN    OWES    TO    HIS    GOVERNMENT 

12.  Citizenship.  Most  boys  find  themselves  obliged 
to  give  up  the  fond  dream  of  some  day  becoming 
President,  for  they  soon  discover  what  a  lot  _ 
of  men  there  are  m  the  world,  and  how  few  wordim- 
Presidents  we  need.  But  there  is  one  dignity 
to  which  every  boy  and  girl  is  born,  and  which  re- 
mains a  life-long  possession  —  that  of  being  a  citizen 
of  this  great  Republic.  The  Roman  orator,  Cicero, 
once  declared  that  the  proudest  boast  which  any  man 
could  make  was  that  of  being  a  Roman  citizen.  And 
so,  in  our  own  time,  the  greatest  thing  that  any  man 
can  say  is,  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 
Let  us  see  who  are  entitled  to  claim  this  privilege  of 
citizenship  ;  and  next,  what  our  government  is  doing 
for  the  citizen,  and  what  the  citizen,  in  turn,  owes  to 
his  government. 

Who  are  citizens?  This  question  is  answered  by 
our  national  constitution,  which  declares  that  every 
person  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  who  are 
States,  and  subject  to  its  laws,  is  a  citizen.^  ciuzens 
So  every  child  born  in  the  United  States  thereby  be- 
comes a  citizen.  Girls  and  women  are  of  course  citi- 
zens, as  well  as  boys  and  men  ;  and  are  equally  en- 
titled to  the  protection  of  government.  But  certain 

1  Constitution,  Amendment  xiv. 


14  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

privileges  of  citizenship,  as  the  right  to  vote,  to  hold 
o£&cej  and  to  serve  on  juries,  are  commonly  reserved 
to  men  alone.  These  privileges  are  generally  granted 
only  to  male  citizens  who  have  reached  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  immigrants  land  upon 
our  shores  each  year ;  and  many  of  these  foreigners 
How  lor-  or  aliens  afterwards  become  citizens  through 
bMome  *^^  process  of  naturalization.  In  order  to 
ciuzens  becomca  citizen,  the  foreigner  (1)  must  have 
lived  in  the  United  States  for  a  period  of  five  years  ; 
and  (2)  he  must  declare  in  court  that  he  gives  up  his 
citizenship  in  the  country  from  which  he  comes,  and 
that  he  will  support  the  constitution  and  laws  of  the 
United  States.  The  court  thereupon  issues  a  certifi- 
cate of  naturalization,  whereby  the  foreigner  becomes 
an  American  citizen.  He  is  then  entitled  to  the  pro- 
tection of  this  government,  and  owes  it  his  allegiance 
and  support. 

13.  Government's  Protection  of  the  Public.  Let 
us  now  consider  what  public  services  government  per- 
Needoi  forms  for  the  citizen.  So  numerous  are  these 
protection  gerviccs  that  it  is  only  possible  to  mention  the 
Inost  important  ones.  We  have  seen  that  the  first 
essential  function  of  government  is  the  maintenance 
of  order,  and  the  protection  of  life  and  property.  A 
man's  life  must  be  safe,  and  what  he  earns  by  his 
labor  must  be  his  to  enjoy ;  this  protection  is,  there- 
fore, the  primary  function  of  government.  When 
you  see  the  policeman  on  the  corner,  you  know  that 
he  represents  a  part  of  the  protection  which  govern- 
ment extends  to  every  citizen.    You  know  that  he  will 


GOVERNMENT  AND   THE   CITIZEN  15 

use  every  effort  to  prevent  crime  and  to  arrest  wrong- 
doers ;  in  short,  to  protect  the  rights  of  yourself  and 
other  law-abiding  persons. 

So  with  the  courts,  which  represent  another  agency 
provided  by  society  for  the  protection  of  the  pubhc 
Here  those  who  have  violated  the  laws  of  the  Function  oi 
State  are  tried,  and  punishments  imposed.  t^«  courts 
Before  these  tribunals  a  man  who  has  been  injured  or 
cheated  by  another  may  seek  redress.  I  have  the  right 
freely  to  use  and  enjoy  my  own  property,  but  it  is  also 
my  duty  to  respect  the  property  rights  of  my  neigh- 
bor. If  I  go  upon  his  premises  without  permission,  pick 
flowers  from  his  yard,  injure  or  deface  his  buildings^ 
he  may  have  me  arrested,  and  that  arm  of  government 
called  the  courts  will  punish  me  for  the  offense. 

But,  you  may  ask,  suppose  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons are  guilty  of  lawless  conduct?  Suppose  a  riot 
breaks  out  in  which  hundreds  of  men  take 

other  pro- 
part,  so  that  the  police  are  powerless?  Back  tective 

of  the  local  police  force  is  the  State  militia, 
which  can  be  called  out  by  the  governor  to  aid  in  en- 
forcing the  law;  and  back  of  the  State  militia  is  the 
entire  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  all  of  which, 
if  necessary,  will  be  used  to  maintain  peace  and  order 
in  every  part  of  the  Union.  So  we  see  that  govern- 
ment has  a  strong  arm  when  it  comes  to  protecting 
the  peace  of  the  community,  and  the  rights  of  the 
citizen.  Moreover,  this  protection  follows  the  citizen 
wherever  he  goes,  even  in  foreign  lands.  If  one  of 
our  citizens  traveling  abroad  is  mistreated,  our  gov- 
ernment will  take  up  the  matter,  and  insist  that  he  be 
given  justice. 


16  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

14.  The  Maintenance  of  Education.  Have  you 
ever  considered  what  an  immense  service  government 
performs  in  providing  free  public  education  for  every 
boy  and  girl  in  the  land  ?  You  belong  to  a  vast  army 
of  twenty-one  million  pupils,  for  whose  education  gov- 
ernment expends  each  year  nearly  $800,000,000.  In 
addition  to  more  than  300,000  schoolhouses,  govern- 
ment maintains  numerous  public  libraries  as  an  aid  to 
its  educational  work. 

15.  Public  Health  and  Charities.  When  an  epi- 
demic of  typhoid  fever  breaks  out,  one  of  the  first 
Water-  questious  asked  is,  "  What  about  the  com- 
suppiy  munity's  water-supply  ?  Is  it  pure  and  free 
from  contamination  ?  "  This  suggests  another  service 
which  government  performs,  for  in  three  fourths  of 
our  cities,  the  water-works  system  is  owned  by  the 
public.  Sometimes  epidemics  are  caused  by  impure 
milk  or  other  food ;  so  government  employs  inspect- 
ors of  milk,  meat,  and  other  foods,  in  order  to  safe- 
guard the  health  of  the  citizens.  For  the  same  reason, 
government  builds  sewers,  and  provides  public  parks 
and  playgrounds,  thus  creating  sanitary  and  healthful 
conditions  for  the  entire  community. 

The  paving  of  streets  is  another  work  carried  on 

by  government ;  while  street  lighting  is  pro- 

ingand       vidcd   either   by  government,   or    by  some 

company  to  which  government  has  granted 

the  privilege  or  franchise. 

Government  also  carries  on  the  important  work  of 
Pnbuochar-  public  charities.  Hospitals,  asylums  for  the 
*****  insane,  the  deaf,  and  the  blind,  are  main- 

tained at  public  expense.  In  its  almshouses  and  poor- 


Courteay,  Ttncment-House  Department,  iV.  Y. 
A  CONGESTED  TENEMENT-HOUSE  SECTION   IN  NEW  YORK 


A  VIEW  IN  CENTRAL  PARK,  NEW  YORK 
Cities  having  congested  sections  should  provide  breathing  spaces  for  the  people 


Courtesy,  Flayground  Association  oj  America. 
ONE  OF  THE  MANY  PLAYGROUNDS  IN  CHICAGO 
A  wading  pool,  and  a  house  for  indoor  recreations  are  unusual  featurea 


Courtesy,  Metropolitan  Water  and  Sewage  Board. 
ONE  OF    THE  RESERVOIRS  IN  BOSTON'S  SYSTEM  OF  WATER  SUPPLY 
Several  acres  of  neighboring  land  serve  all  the  purposes  of  a  public  park. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   THE   CITIZEN  17 

farms,  government  takes  care  of  those  unfortunates 
who  are  unable  to  support  themselves. 

All  of  these  services  are  performed  either  by  local 
or  State  governments.  Thus  we  see  how  important  is 
the  work  of  these  governments,  and  how  necessary 
it  is  that  honest  and  ef&cient  of&cials  be  chosen  to 
direct  this  work. 

i6.  Work  of  the  National  Government.  When 
you  send  a  letter  through  the  mails,  you  are  making 
use  of  one  of  the  most  important  services  of 
the  national  government.  When  you  pay  for  money,  and 
something  at  the  store,  you  make  use  of 
money,  the  circulating  medium  provided  by  the  na- 
tional government,  without  which  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  carry  on  the  business  of  the  country.  Busi- 
ness is  also  greatly  aided  by  means  of  our  national 
banking  system  ;  and  recently  the  post-office  depart- 
ment has  established  a  system  of  postal  savings  banks, 
intended  primarily  for  depositors  of  limited  means. 

When  you  travel  on  a  ship,  your  journey  is  ren- 
dered more  safe  by  means  of  the  lighthouses  which 
our  federal  government  maintains  to  guide  Aids  to 
your  ship  safely  to  harbor.  If  you  live  upon  commoroe 
a  navigable  river,  you  have  probably  seen  dredges  at 
work  broadening  and  deepening  the  channel.  This 
improvement  of  rivers  and  harbors  is  one  of  the  most 
important  services  whereby  the  federal  governrxant 
aids  commerce.  The  Panama  Canal,  first  opened  to 
commerce  in  1914,  is  the  greatest  work  of  this  kind 
ever  undertaken  by  any  government. 

When  the  telephone  was  invented,  the  inventors 
applied  to  the  national  government  for  a  patent,  in 


18  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

order  to  secure  for  themselves  the  exclusive  right  to 
make  and  sell  their  invention.  So,  too,  when  a  man 
Encourage-  writcs  a  book,  he  applies  to  the  national  gov- 
rcienwand  emment  for  a  copyright,  giving  him  the  sole 
uterature  right  to  publish  and  scU  it.  Thus  government 
aids  inventors  and  authors  by  securing  to  them  the 
fruits  of  their  labor. 

In  your  study  of  geography,  you  learned  that  in 
the  West  and  Southwest  there  are  thousands  of  acres 
of  land  which  cannot  be  cultivated  because 
of  the  scant  water-supply.  By  building  im- 
mense dams  and  reservoirs,  the  national  government 
has  provided  irrigation  systems  which  are  transform- 
ing these  desert  regions  into  fertile  farms. 

Perhaps  you  have  read  of  the  forest  rangers, 
men  employed  by  the  government  to  guard  against 
Forest  pro-  forcst  fires  and  timber  thieves.  This  protec- 
tecuon  ^JQjj  Qf  Q^p  forests  is  a  part  of  the  all-important 
work  which  government  performs  in  the  conservation 
of  our  natural  resources. 

17.  The  Duty  of  paying  Taxes.  Such  are  the  more 
important  of  the  almost  numberless  services  which  gov- 
Taxesne-  crnmeut  performs  for  the  citizen.  Let  us  now 
supp^ort*°  consider  what  the  citizen,  in  turn,  owes  to  his 
government  government ;  for  the  right  to  claim  all  these 
services  surely  must  imply  corresponding  duties.  First, 
it  is  the  duty  of  all  those  who  live  under  any  govern- 
ment to  aid  in  providing  the  finances  by  which  gov- 
ernment carries  on  its  work ;  in  other  words,  to  pay 
taxes.  The  services  which  government  performs  cost 
immense  sums  of  money ;  and  this  money  must  come 
from  the  pockets  of  the  citizens.  It  is  the  duty  of  every 


GOVEKJSTMENT  AND  THE   CITIZEN  19 

person  to  contribute  this  financial  support  according 
to  his  means.  The  man  who  seeks  to  evade  his  fair 
share  of  taxes  is  trying  to  cheat  the  entire  com- 
munity. If  a  number  of  you  should  club  together  to 
buy  a  basket-ball,  and  a  boy  who  could  afford  to  pay 
should  refuse  to  contribute  his  share,  you  would  say  at 
once  that  he  ought  not  to  use  the  ball.  In  the  same 
situation  is  the  man  who  evades  his  just  share  of  thfr 
expenses  of  government.  He  deserves  neither  the  pro- 
tection of  government,  nor  the  use  of  the  many  publio- 
conveniences  which  government  provides. 

i8.  The  Duty  of  Military  Support.  Not  only  bj 
giving  a  portion  of  his  property  does  the  citizen  support 
his  government ;  if  necessary,  he  must  take  Muitary 
up  arms  in  its  defense.  During  the  Civil  ^^*JJ 
War,  more  than  one  milHon  men  left  their  oompuisorj 
homes  to  fight  for  the  Union.  Most  of  these  were 
volunteers ;  but  before  the  war  ended,  the  government 
was  obliged  to  draft  many  men  who  did  not  volunteer 
to  serve.  When  the  United  States  entered  the  World 
War  in  1917,  a  conscription  law  was  at  once  passed. 
So  we  realize  that  in  time  of  peril,  government  may 
claim  the  services  of  every  able-bodied  man.  Every 
citizen,  then,  must  be  prepared  to  offer  even  his  life 
in  the  support  of  his  government.  It  is  not  from  men 
alone  that  government  receives  military  support.  In 
the  history  of  the  Civil  War,  one  reads  of  the  devoted 
services  and  sacrifices  of  the  noble  women  of  both 
North  and  South.  So  women,  as  well  as  men,  support 
their  government  in  time  of  war. 

19.  The    Duty  of   Voting.    It  may  be  that  none 
of  you  will  be  called  upon  to  take  up  arms  in  support 


20  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

of  your  government ;  for  to-day  men  realize  more 
than  ever  before  the  horror  and  the  wickedness  of 
Importance  ^^^'  ^^^  there  is  another  all-important  duty 
of  tie  bauot  ^ych  every  voter  should  perform.  He  should 
cast  his  vote  at  elections  for  honest  men,  who  will 
render  honest  and  efficient  public  service.  Your  ballot 
is  just  as  vital  to  government's  support  in  time  of  peace 
as  your  bayonet  in  time  of  war.  Remember  that  when 
public  money  is  wasted,  it  is  your  money  that  is 
wasted.  If  public  officials  are  incompetent,  you  help 
pay  the  bills.  You  should  not  be  influenced  by  the 
example  of  those  lazy  and  indifferent  men  who  stay 
away  from  the  polls  on  election  day.  You  will  per- 
haps hear  these  men  say  that  "  it 's  all  no  use,  the 
politicians  will  run  things  anyway."  Older  men  some- 
times grow  weary  and  pessimistic ;  it  is  for  you,  the 
youth  of  the  land,  whose  hearts  are  inspired  with  the 
golden  ideals  and  hopes  of  youth,  to  enter  on  the  path 
of  progress,  and  fight  the  hard  fight  for  good  gov- 
ernment. Only  in  this  way  can  our  popular  govern- 
ment succeed;  and  this  duty  to  vote  and  work  for 
the  election  of  good  public  officials  is  the  greatest 
service  which  you  can  render  your  country. 

20.  The  Duty  of  Jury  Service.  Another  duty  which 
the  citizen  may  be  called  upon  to  perform  is  that  of 
jury  service.  This  is  not  a  pleasant  duty,  for  one 
may  be  kept  away  from  his  business  for  several 
days,  or  even  weeks.  If  the  trial  is  a  long  one.  But 
jury  trial  is  an  important  safeguard  of  free  govern- 
ment ;  and  every  citizen  should  be  willing  to  serve  if 
called,  even  at  a  personal  sacrifice. 

aio  TheDutyof  Officeholdingc  Finally,  citizens  may 


GOVERNMENT  AND  THE   CITIZEN  21 

owe  it  to  the  community  to  accept  public  office,  even 
when  they  prefer  not  to  serve.  Men  of  high  talent 
and  ability  are  often  unwilling  to  give  up  the  time 
necessary  for  public  office ;  but  it  is  just  this  class  of 
men  that  the  public  service  needs.  There  are  always 
numerous  individuals  who  desire  public  office  for 
what  they  can  get  out  of  it ;  but  it  is  not  alone  from 
those  who  seek  office  that  officials  should  be  chosen. 
Gradually  we  are  coming  to  realize  that  the  office 
should  seek  the  man,  not  the  man  the  office.  Hence 
if  a  man's  fellow  citizens  desire  him  to  accept  office, 
he  should  not  decline  the  nomination.  He  owes  the 
community  a  certain  amount  of  public  service,  even 
at  a  personal  sacrifice. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Who  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  ? 

2.  Why  should  foreigners  who  come  to  the  United  States  be 
permitted  to  become  citizens  ? 

3.  Tell  how  government  protects  the  people. 

4.  Describe  the  process  of  naturalization. 

5.  Enumerate  some  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  citizenship. 

6.  How  does  government  protect  the  public  health  ? 

7.  Who  looks  after  street  paving  in  your  community  ?     Street 
lighting  ? 

8.  What  is  irrigation,  and  why  is  it  important? 

9.  How  are  the  forests  protected  ?  Why  is  this  protection  ne- 
cessary ? 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   SELECTION    OF    PUBLIC   OFFICIALS 

22.  Election-Day  Scenes.  Probably  every  boy  and 
girl  in  your  class  is  familiar  with  some  of  the  scenes  on 
election  day.  Perhaps  you  recall  the  small  red  flags 
placed  near  each  voting  booth,  marking  off  the  space 
within  which  it  is  forbidden  to  solicit  votes.  You  may 
have  seen  a  line  of  voters  at  some  booth,  each  man 
awaiting  his  turn  to  enter  and  cast  his  ballot.  You 
know  that  in  the  evening  these  ballots  are  counted ; 
and  crowds  of  men,  women,  and  children  assemble  in 
front  of  the  newspaper  offices,  eagerly  watching  the 
election  returns  flashed  on  the  screen.  Probably  most 
of  the  boys  have  helped  contribute  to  the  noisy  en- 
thusiasm over  the  outcome.  Sometimes,  if  the  election 
is  a  close  one,  the  result  is  not  known  until  the  next 
morning.  Then  newsboys  are  on  the  streets  at  an 
early  hour,  calling  "  Extra !  Extra !  All  about  the 
election  !  " 

It  is  natural  that  there  should  be  a  good  deal  of 
excitement  on  election  day ;  for  at  this  time  the  voters 
Repre-  choosc  the  men  who  make  and  enforce  our 
laws.  Ours  is  called  a  representative  govern- 
ment, because  its  officers  are  chosen  by  the 
people  to  represent  them  in  the  management  of  public 
affairs.  Good  government  is  impossible  unless  good 
representatives  are  chosen;  hence  election  day  is  the 
most  important  of  all  days  in  our  national  life.    It  is 


sentative 
govern- 
ment 


THE  SELECTION  OF  PUBLIC  OFFICIALS         23 

really  the  nation's  birthday ;  the  day  when  the  voters 
make  or  mar  their  government. 

23.  The  Right  to  Vote.  Who  may  vote  at  elections? 
The  answer  to  this  question  depends  upon  the  State 
in  which  you  live,  since  each  State  deter-  Manhood 
mines  for  itself  who  may  exercise  this  privi-  ^^^*se 
lege.  As  a  rule,  all  male  citizens,  twenty-one  years  of 
age  or  over,  may  vote.  A  certain  period  of  residence 
within  the  State  —  ranging  from  six  months  to  two 
years  —  is  always  required.  So  the  four  common  re- 
quirements for  voting  are :  (1)  citizenship  in  the 
United  States  ;^  (2)  male  sex;  (3)  twenty-one  years  of 
age ;  (4)  residence  within  the  State. 

Nearly  one  half  of  the  States  do  not  limit  the  right 
to  vote  to  men,  but  permit  women  also  to  exercise 
this  right.  Moreover,  Congress  in  1919  woman's 
voted  in  favor  of  the  proposed  nineteenth  *^*^*s» 
amendment  to  the  national  constitution,  granting  the 
ballot  to  women  throughout  the  Union  on  the  same 
terms  as  to  men.  This  amendment  is  now  before 
the  States  for  ratification. 

In  nearly  all  the  States,  persons  convicted  of  a  se- 
rious crime,  paupers,  and  the  insane,  are  forbidden 
the  right  to  vote.  You  will  readily  under-  classes  ex- 
stand  why  these  persons  should  be  debarred.  ^^^^^^ 
Thirteen  commonwealths  ^  withhold  the  right  to  vote 
from  those  who  are  illiterate;  that  is,  who  are  unable 
to  read  or  write.  These  States  have  adopted  an  edu- 
cational qualification  in  order  to  protect  themselves 

1  In  eleven  States  aliens  are  permitted  to  vote,  provided  they  have 
declared  their  intention  of  becoming  citizens. 

2  Alabama,  California,  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Louisiana,  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  Mississippi,  New  Hampshire,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Washington,  and  Wyoming. 


24  PREPARING  FOR   aXIZENSHlP 

against  ignorant  voters,  who  could  not  be  expected 
to  cast  an  intelligent  ballot. 

24.  Time  of  holding  Elections.    In  most  common- 

wealths, the  State   and  county  officers  are 

state  and .  "^ 

county  eiec-  elected  ou  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first 

Monday  in  November.  These  elections  are 

generally  held  in  the  even-numbered  years,  so  that 

they  are  hiennial  elections  (held  in  every  second  year). 

Township,  village,  and  city  officers  are  also  com- 
monly elected  once  in  two  years.  These  elections  are 
Local  eieo-  generally  held  in  the  odd-numbered  years,  or 
^°^^  else  in  the  spring,  so  as  to  separate  them 

from  other  elections.  The  object  of  this  separation  is 
to  have  local  issues  considered  upon  their  merits, 
apart  from  other  questions. 

The  election  of  a  President  occurs  once  in  four 
years,  and  is  held  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first 
National  Monday  in  November.  A  presidential  elec- 
eiections  |.j^j^  ^^g  \^^^  ^^  November  7, 1916,  and  oc- 
curs every  four  years  thereafter.  Members  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  are  chosen  in  November  of 
the  even-n umbered  years. 

25.  The  Steps  in  Popular  Election.  When  voters 
cast  their  ballots  at  the  polls  they  vote  for  men  who 
have  been  nominated  for  office.  These  nominations 
are  made  several  weeks  or  months  before  the  election, 
usually  through  the  agency  of  political  parties.  In  the 
interval  between  the  nominations  and  the  election, 
each  party  carries  on  a  campaign  in  order  to  win 
votes.  In  order  to  determine  beforehand  who  is  en- 
titled to  vote,  voters  are  required  to  register  their 
names  several  weeks  before  the  election.  Then  comes 


THE   SELECTION  OF  PUBLIC  OFFICIALS         25 

the  casting  of  the  ballots  on  election  day  ;  and  finally, 
the  counting  of  the  votes,  and  announcement  of  the 
returns.  Of  these  steps  in  a  popular  election,  the  ones 
which  you  should  remember  are:  (1)  the  nomination 
of  candidates ;  (2)  the  registration  of  voters ;  (3)  cast- 
ing and  counting  the  ballots. 

26.  Registration  of  Voters.  For  convenience  in  car- 
rying on  elections,  the  counties  and  townships  of  each 
State  are  subdivided  into  small  election  dis-  object  of 
tricts  or  precincts,  each  containing  a  few  hun-  "e^s^ration 
dred  voters.  Each  of  these  precincts  has  an  election 
booth,  where  voters  are  commonly  required  to  register 
their  names  before  election.  A  voter  registers  by  giv- 
ing his  name,  age,  place  of  residence,  length  of  resi- 
dence in  the  State  and  in  the  election  district,  and 
other  information  establishing  his  right  to  vote.  Fre- 
quent registration  is  seldom  required  in  villages  and 
towns,  where  voters  are  well  know^n  to  each  other ;  but 
in  the  cities,  annual  registration  is  generally  neces- 
sary in  order  to  prevent  dishonest  men  from  voting 
in  more  than  one  precinct. 

27.  Casting  and  counting  the  Ballots.  On  election 
day  the  voter  goes  to  the  election  booth  in  his  pre- 
cinct, which  is  usually  kept  open  from  six  process  ei 
o'clock  in  the  morning  until  six  in  the  even-  ^°^^ 
ing.  He  gives  his  name  and  address  to  the  election 
clerk,  who  records  both,  and  ascertains  whether  the 
voter  has  duly  registered.  The  voter  then  receives  an 
official  ballot  from  the  election  officials,  and  takes  it 
into  one  of  the  several  little  booths  or  stalls  arranged 
so  as  to  insure  complete  privacy.  All  the  States  ex- 
cept five  have  adopted  a  form  of  ballot  similar  to  that 


26  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

used  in  Australia,  hence  known  as  the  Australiaa 
ballot.  On  this  ballot  the  names  of  candidates  of  each 
party  are  printed,  generally  in  parallel  columns  under- 
neath the  party  name  and  emblem. ^  In  some  States, 
a  man  may  vote  a  "  straight  ticket"  by  placing  a  cross- 
mark  in  the  circle  at  the  head  of  the  party  column  ;  in 
others,  he  must  place  a  cross-mark  opposite  the  name 
of  each  candidate  for  whom  he  wishes  to  vote.  He 
then  folds  his  ballot  with  the  names  hidden,  and  hands 
it  to  an  election  officer,  who  deposits  it  in  the  ballot 
box.  The  clerk  thereupon  makes  an  entry  in  his  books, 
showing  that  the  person  has  voted. 

As  soon  as  the  polls  close,  the  ballots  are  counted, 
and  the  results  certified  to  the  proper  county  or  city 
Examination  officer.  This  official  examines  the  returns  for 
oi  returns  ^j-^g  entire  county  or  city,  and  issues  certifi- 
cates of  election  to  the  successful  candidates.  When 
State  officers,  presidential  electors,  or  congressmen  are 
voted  for,  the  county  authorities  certify  the  result  in 
their  respective  counties  to  a  State  officer,  who  exam- 
ines the  returns,  and  issues  the  election  certificates. 

28.  Election  Safeguards.  Under  our  system  of 
popular  government,  a  secret  ballot  and  an  honest 
Australian  couut  of  the  vote  are  all-important.  Before 
ballot  ^[jg  adoption  of  the  Australian  ballot  it  was 
possible  for  corrupt  party  managers  to  purchase  votes. 
They  placed  the  party  ticket  in  the  hands  of  men  who 
would  sell  their  votes,  and  since  party  workers  had 

^  Another  form  known  as  the  "Massachusetts"  ballot  is  used  in 
eleven  States.  This  omits  the  party  emblem  entirely,  the  names  of  the 
candidates  being  arranged  in  alphabetical  order  under  the  title  of  each 
office,  followed  by  the  name  of  the  party;  and  the  voter  must  have 
sufficient  intelligence  to  read  the  ballot  and  select  the  candidates  for 
whom  he  wishes  to  vote. 


VOTERS  WAITING  AT  THE  POLLS 

In  many  cities  and  towns,  conveniently  located  shops  and  offices  are  chosen  as  voting  placeeu 
Others  have  specially  constructed  "  election-booths,"  and  still  others  hold  elections  in  school- 
houses,  town-halls,  etc. 


CASTING  THE  BALLOT 

The  election  ofQcers  are  about  to  check  off  the  voter's  name.    His  ballot  may  then  be  placed 

in  the  ballot-box. 


^5 


■52 

is 

o 


II 


^1 


■3.S 

e  u 
•S  « 

Is 


THE  SELECTION  OF  PUBLIC  OFFICIALS         27 

free  access  to  the  voting  booth,  they  could  see  these 
purchased  votes  deposited  in  the  ballot  box.  But  at 
the  present  time,  a  voter  can  use  only  the  official  bal- 
lot given  him  by  the  election  officials  after  he  enters 
the  booth.  Since  this  ballot  contains  the  names  of  all 
candidates,  and  is  marked  in  secret,  it  is  impossible 
to  be  sure  that  the  corrupt  voter  "stays  bought," 
even  if  he  accepts  money  for  his  vote.  There  can  be 
no  greater  crime  against  our  government  than  the 
attempt  to  influence  elections  corruptly ;  and  many 
States  have  passed  "  corrupt  practices  acts,"  providing 
severe  penalties  for  this  offense.  These  acts  also  re- 
quire candidates  for  office  to  file  an  itemized  sworn 
statement  of  their  expenses  in  the  election. 

Other  important  precautions  are  taken  to  secure  a 
free  and  honest  expression  of  the  will  of  the  voters. 
Each  party  is  permitted  to  have  watchers  at 

ii'ii  •  •  1    Fair  and 

the  election  booth  to  witness  the  casting  and  impartial 
counting  of  the  votes,  and  to  challenge  any  *  ***  °^ 
person  whom  they  believe  not  qualified  to  vote.  Elec- 
tioneering is  forbidden  within  a  certain  distance  of 
the  polls ;  and  careful  precautions  are  taken  to  secure 
an  honest  count  of  the  ballots.  Every  possible  legal 
safeguard  has  been  devised  to  protect  the  ballot ;  but 
the  strongest  bulwark  against  dishonest  voting  is 
public  sentiment.  Every  citizen  should  insist  upon  fair 
and  honest  elections  in  his  community.  He  should 
regard  as  a  traitor  to  his  country  the  man  who,  by 
fraud  or  intimidation,  seeks  to  defeat  the  will  of  the 
people. 

29.  The  Voter's  Responsibility.  But  the  voter's  duty 
does  not  end  here.  In  order  to  cast  an  intelligent 


28  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

vote,  he  should  inform  himself  concerning  the  char- 
acter of  the  candidates,  and  have  a  clear  idea  of  the 
Independent  principles  for  which  they  stand.  Too  often 
voting  jjjgjj  ^Q^Q  ^  straight  party  ticket,  without 
much  consideration  either  of  candidates  or  principles. 
A  man  should  always  vote  for  the  best  candidates,  re- 
gardless of  whether  they  belong  to  his  own  political 
party.  It  is  of  little  consequence  whether  a  candidate 
calls  himseK  a  Democrat  or  a  Republican  or  a  Pro- 
gressive ;  but  it  makes  all  the  difference  in  the  world 
whether  our  public  officials  are  honest  and  capable 
men.  Party  emblems  mean  little  to  the  intelligent 
voter ;  men  and  principles  mean  everything.  By  re- 
fusing to  support  candidates  whose  records  are  bad, 
voters  can  compel  the  nomination  of  men  who  will 
prove  honest  and  efficient  public  servants. 

You  may  be  surprised  to  learn  that  a  large  propor- 
tion of  voters  fail  to  go  to  the  polls  at  all  on  election 
stay-at-  ^^J'  Thcso  men  have  only  themselves  to 
homevoters  blame  if  the  business  of  government  is  badly 
managed.  The  men  who  believe  in  good  government 
and  in  the  enforcement  of  law  are  always  in  the  major- 
ity ;  bat  on  election  day  many  of  them  do  not  take  the 
trouble  to  vote.  On  the  other  hand,  the  men  who  are 
trying  to  elect  dishonest  or  incompetent  candidates 
never  fail  to  put  their  ballots  in  the  box.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  some  plan  should  be  devised  which 
would  compel  every  man  to  vote;  certain  it  is  that 
the  voter  who  does  not  exercise  this  privilege  fails  in 
his  supreme  duty  as  a  citizen. 

30.  Direct  Legislation.  Sometimes  voters  do  more 
than  select  public  officials.  Frequently  they  are  asked 


THE  SELECTION  OF  PUBLIC  OFFICIALS         29 

40  vote  directly  whether  a  certain  measure  shall  be- 
come a  law.  This  is  called  direct  legislation,  because 
the  voters  are  acting  directly,  instead  of  through 
their  representatives.  In  the  New  England  town- 
meeting,  we  have  an  example  of  direct  voting  upon 
proposed  laws  by  the  individual  voters. 

In  other  sections  of  the  country,  this  form  of  direct 
legislation  is  employed  only  in  the  case  of  important 
measures.  For  example,  from  early  times  it  has  Reierendum 
been  customary  to  refer  proposed  constitutions  or  con- 
stitutional amendments  to  a  vote  of  the  people.  Refer- 
ring a  proposed  measure  to  popular  vot^  for  approval 
or  rejection  is  called  a  re/erencZi^m.  It  is  often  em- 
ployed in  case  of  a  proposed  bond  issue;  or  to  deter- 
mine whether  liquor  shall  be  sold  in  a  certain  locality; 
or  whether  a  franchise  or  privilege  shall  be  granted  by 
government  to  a  corporation.  The  great  value  of  the 
referendum  is  that  it  affords  a  definite  means  of  as- 
certaining public  sentiment  on  a  proposed  measure. 

Another  form  of  direct  legislation  is  the  initiative, 
which  empowers  a  certain  percentage  of  the  voters  to 
propose  laws.  For  example,  the  constitution  iniuauve 
of  Oregon  provides  that  eight  per  cent  of  the  voters 
may  propose  a  measure,  which  must  afterwards  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  voters  at  election.  If  approved  by  them, 
it  becomes  a  law  just  as  if  passed  by  the  legislature. 

The  great  value  of  direct  legislation  is  that  it  gives 
to  voters  themselves  the  final  authority  to  decide  upon 
important  measures.  Then  if  lesrislators  be-   , 

^  .  1      1  T  1      Advantages 

tray  their  trust,  the  people  have  the  remedy  of  direct  leg- 

in  their  own  hands.  Through  the  referendum 

they  may  demand  a  popular  vote  on  the  measure,  and 


so  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

defeat  it.  Or  if  the  legislature  should  refuse  to  pass 
a  measure  clearly  desired  by  the  voters,  the  initiative 
enables  them  to  legislate  for  themselves.  Thus  the 
referendum  and  the  initiative  serve  as  valuable  checks 
upon  the  action  of  legislative  bodies,  making  it  easier 
for  the  voters  to  control  their  government. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Distinguish  between  an  inhabitant,  a  citizen,  and  a  voter. 

2.  Are  all  citizens  voters  ?  In  your  State  must  a  voter  be  a  cit- 
izen? 

3.  What  are  the  qualifications  for  voters  in  your  State  ?  What 
classes  of  individuals  are  expressly  disqualified,  and  why  ? 

4.  Examine  the  report  of  the  last  census,  and  ascertain  the  total 
number  of  citizens  and  the  number  of  voters  in  your  city  or 
county.  How  many  votes  are  usually  cast  in  your  city  and 
county  elections  ? 

5.  In  the  last  State  election,  how  many  votes  were  cast  in  your 
county  for  governor  ?  What  number  of  voters  failed  to  ex- 
ercise the  right  of  suffrage  ?  Should  a  man  without  property 
be  allowed  to  vote  ?  Should  a  man  without  education  be 
allowed  to  vote  ? 

6.  Give  the  chief  arguments  for  and  against  woman's  suffrage. 

7.  Is  registration  required  in  your  State  ?  In  all  communities, 
or  in  cities  of  a  certain  size  ?  What  are  the  advantages  of 
registration  ? 

8.  Is  the  system  of  registration  annual  as  in  New  York,  or  per- 
manent as  in  Massachusetts  ?  Describe  the  process  of  regis- 
tration in  your  community. 

9.  Give  the  time  of  holding  local.  State,  and  national  elections 
in  your  commonwealth.  What  are  the  reasons  for  holding 
these  at  the  same  or  different  times  ? 

10.  State  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  frequent  elections. 

11.  Which  form  of  the  Australian  ballot  is  used  in  your  State  ? 

12.  Where  is  the  polling-place  in  your  precinct  ?  How  many  votes 
were  cast  there  at  the  last  election  ?  During  what  hours  were 
the  polls  open  ? 

13.  In  your  State  what  candidates  are  nominated  by  conventions  ? 
By  direct  primaries  ?  By  petition  ?  What  are  the  advantages 
of  each  method  ? 


CHAPTER  IV 

POLITICAL   PARTIES  AND    THEIR   WORK 

31.  Origin  of  Political  Parties.  At  the  very  begin< 
ning  of  our  national  government,  the  question  of  the 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  political  parties.  The  group  of  men  who 
favored  the  adoption  of  the  new  constitution  called 
themselves  Federalists;  those  who  opposed  it  were 
known  as  Anti-Federalists.  After  the  constitution 
had  been  adopted  (1789),  the  Federalists  urged  that 
the  new  national  government  should  have 

large  powers;  while  their  opponents,  the 
Republicans,  held  the  opposite  view.  As  new  ques- 
tions came  up  in  our  national  history,  it  was  natural 
for  men  holding  similar  views  to  unite  in  order  to 
support  the  policies  in  which  they  believed;  so  the 
party  system  continued.  The  questions  of  a  federal 
bank,  of  a  protective  tariff,  of  internal  improvements 
by  the  federal  government — these  were  subjects  on 
which  men  held  diverse  views ;  and  so  we  find  the 
political  parties  opposing  each  other  on  these  issues. 
The  slavery  question  was  of  such  overwhelming  im- 
portance that  it  finally  led  to  the  rise  of  a  new  party, 
composed  of  men  opposed  to  the  extension  of  slavery. 

32.  Functions  of  Political  Parties.  Thus  we  see 
that  political  parties  are  made  up  of  men  holding 
similar  views  on  political  questions,  who  have  united 
in  a  party  in  order  to  act  more  effectively.  The  most 


82  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

important  work  of  the  political  party  is  the  noml* 

nation  for  public  office  of  candidates  who  are  pledged 

to  carry  out  certain  policies.    Parties   also 

Three  Im-  *'  ■*■  . 

portantserv-  adopt  platforms,  or  declarations  of  princi- 
ples, which  are  placed  before  the  voters  for 
approval  or  rejection.  You  of  course  know  that 
another  function  of  parties  is  to  carry  on  political 
campaigns,  by  which  they  endeavor  to  secure  sup- 
port for  their  candidates  and  policies.  Thus  the 
four  functions  which  political  parties  perforin  are: 
(1)  uniting  in  one  group  large  numbers  of  men 
who  hold  similar  political  views ;  (2)  the  nomination 
of  candidates;  (3)  the  adoption  of  platforms;  and 
(4)  the  management  of  campaigns. 

33.  How  Political  Parties  are  Organized.  To 
carry  out  these  functions,  party  members  must  work 

tosfether  under  some  plan  or  or2:anization. 

Conventions        *-'  .  ■*•  .  .  . 

and  commit- Accordingly,  party  business  is  carried  on: 
(1)  by  nominating  conventions,  which  meet 
before  elections  to  name  candidates  and  adopt  plat- 
forms ;  and  (2)  by  party  committees,  permanent  bodies 
which  arrange  for  the  conventions,  conduct  political 
campaigns,  and  have  the  general  management  of  party 
affairs.  Each  party  has  a  national  committee  for  the 
entire  United  States,  a  State  committee  in  each  State, 
and  a  local  committee  for  each  county,  city,  and 
township. 

34.  Party  Primaries.  One  method  of  nominating 
candidates  for  office  is  by  means  of  the  party  conven- 
purposooi  tion,  which  may  be  either  a  local,  State,  or 
the  primary  national  assembly,  depending  upon  whether 
the   officers   to   be   nominated   are   local,  State,  or 


POLITICAL  PARTIES   AND   THEIR  WORK        33 

national  officials.  A  nominating  convention  is  a  meet- 
ing of  delegates  chosen  by  the  members  of  a  party 
for  the  purpose  of  nominating  candidates  for  office, 
adopting  platforms,  and  transacting  other  party  busi- 
ness. If  a  State  election  is  to  be  held,  the  State  com- 
mittee of  each  party  sends  out  a  written  notice  or 
call  for  the  convention.^  This  call  tells  when  the  con- 
vention is  to  be  held,  and  the  number  of  delegates 
to  be  chosen  from  each  city,  township,  or  county. 
Delegates  are  then  elected  at  party  primaries  held  in 
each  of  the  small  election  districts  into  which  town- 
ships and  city  wards  are  divided.  These  primaries  are 
similar  to  regular  elections,  except  in  one  important 
particular :  only  those  who  belong  to  the  party  may 
vote  at  its  primaries.  Of  course,  only  members  of  the 
party  should  have  the  privilege  of  selecting  the  dele- 
gates who  are  to  nominate  the  party's  candidates. 
Accordingly,  only  Republicans  vote  at  the  primaries 
of  their  party,  only  Democrats  at  the  Democratic 
primaries. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  every  voter 
should  cast  a  ballot  at  his  party  primary,  and  thus 
help  choose  ofood  men  as  delegates  to  his 

^  ^.  ^  .  °  Importance 

party  convention.    Otherwise   party  affairs  ofthepn- 
may  be  badly  managed,  and  unworthy  can-  ^^^ 
didates  nominated.  Notwithstanding  the  importance 
of  the  primaries,  the  majority  of  voters  do  not  take 
the  trouble  to  attend  them.  They  leave  the  selection 
of  delegates  to  the  party  managers,  who  are  actively 

*  In  a  similar  way,  the  local  party  committee  has  charge  of  local 
conventions,  and  the  national  party  committee,  of  the  national  con« 
Tention  which  nominates  presidential  candidates. 


34  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

interested.  Then  if  unworthy  delegates  are  chosen, 
and  poor  nominations  made,  they  denounce  the  poli- 
ticians and  the  party  system ;  whereas  they  should 
blame  themselves  in  having  failed  to  fulfill  an  all-im- 
portant duty.  "  The  prime  thing  that  every  man  who 
takes  an  interest  in  politics  should  remember  is,  that 
he  must  act,  and  not  merely  criticize  the  action  of 
others.  It  is  not  the  man  who  sits  by  his  fireside  read- 
ing his  evening  paper,  and  saying  how  bad  our  poli- 
tics and  politicians  are,  who  will  ever  do  anything  to 
save  us ;  it  is  the  man  who  goes  out  into  the  rough 
hurly-burly  of  the  caucus,  the  primary,  and  the  politi- 
cal meeting,  and  there  faces  his  fellows  on  equal  terms. 
The  real  service  is  rendered,  not  by  the  critic  who 
stands  aloof  from  the  contest,  but  by  the  man  who 
enters  into  it  and  bears  his  part  as  a  man  should."  ^ 
35.  The  State  Convention  and  its  Work.  On  the 
day  appointed  for  the  State  convention,  the  delegates 

chosen  at  the  primaries  assemble.  The  con- 
oi  the  con-    veutiou  is  Called  to  order  by  the  chairman 

of  the  State  committee,  and  the  secretary  of 
that  committee  reads  the  call.  Prayer  is  then  offered 
by  a  local  clergyman.  Motions  are  carried  for  the  ap- 
pointment by  the  chair  of  a  committee  on  credentials, 
a  committee  on  permanent  organization,  and  a  com- 
mittee on  resolutions.  Permanent  officers  of  the  con- 
vention are  elected,  including  a  president,  a  secretary, 
a  sergeant-at-arms,  and  numerous  vice-presidents.  The 
president  of  the  convention  is  generally  a  prominent 
party  leader,  and  upon  taking  the  chair  he  delivers 
a  "keynote  "  speech  upon  the  issues  of  the  campaign. 

1  Roosevelt,  Theodore,  American  Ideals,  p.  37. 


POLITICAL  PARTIES  AND  THEIR  WORK        35 

Then  follows  the  report  of  the  committee  on  cre- 
dentials, stating  the  number  of  delegates  present,  and 
rendering  a  decision  upon  contested  seats.  The  plat- 
form is  next  read  by  the  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  resolutions,  and  ordinarily  is  accepted  without 
amendment. 

The  convention  then  takes  up  its  most  important 
work  —  the  nomination  of  candidates.  The  chair  ap- 
points a  committee  of  tellers  to  take  charge  candidates 
of  the  ballots,  and  nominations  for  the  office  ^^^  platform 
of  governor  are  declared  in  order.  After  the  nomi- 
nating speeches  have  been  made,  the  balloting  com- 
mences. When  one  candidate  receives  a  majority  of 
all  votes  cast,  it  is  customary  to  move  that  his  nomi- 
nation be  made  unanimous.  The  convention  then  pro- 
ceeds with  the  nomination  of  candidates  for  other 
State  offices.  Toward  the  close  of  the  proceedings,  all 
the  nominees  are  sometimes  escorted  to  the  platform 
by  a  committee  appointed  for  that  purpose  i  and  after 
being  introduced  by  the  chairman,  each  candidate  in 
turn  responds  with  a  short  speech. 

State  conventions  usually  select  the  members  of 
the  State  committee  to  serve  until  the  next  conven- 
tion, and  in  presidential  years  nominate  the  four  dele- 
gates at  large  to  the  national  convention. 

36.  Direct  Primary  System.  The  convention  method 
of  nominating  candidates  is  the  older  plan,  still  widely 
used :   but  in    most   States,  candidates  are 

.  ,  -11  T      Eliminate! 

nominated  not  by  conventions,  but  by  a  di-  the  conven- 
rect  vote  of  the   members   of  their  party. 
This  is  known  as  the  "  direct  primary  system."  The 
names  of  persons  who  desire  to  be  nominated  are  placed 


S6  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

on  the  ballot,  and  on  a  certain  day  an  election  is  held. 
This  is  similar  to  a  regular  election,  except  that  voters 
declare  to  which  party  they  belong,  and  vote  only  for 
candidates  of  that  party.  In  each  party  those  indi- 
viduals are  nominated  who  receive  the  largest  number 
of  votes  cast  by  the  party  members.  The  great  merit  of 
this  plan  is  that  it  does  away  with  the  abuses  of  the 
convention  system,  especially  machine  control,  and 
makes  the  party  more  responsible  to  its  members. 

At  first  used  only  for  local  offices,  direct  primaries 
have  grown  in  favor  until  now,  in  addition  to  local 
Favored  by  Candidates,  State  officers  and  United  States 
voters  Senators  are  often  nominated  in  this  way. 
Oregon  and  Wisconsin  took  the  lead  in  adopting  the 
new  system  ;  and  their  example  has  since  been  fol- 
lowed by  many  other  States.  Party  leaders  generally 
oppose  this  plan,  since  it  lessens  their  power.  On  the 
other  hand,  voters  are  inclined  to  favor  the  plan.  It 
enables  them  to  vote  directly  for  the  party's  nominees, 
instead  of  entrusting  this  duty  to  delegates  who  some- 
times fail  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  voters. 

37.  Nomination  by  Petition.  Another  method  which 

likewise  does  away  with  the  convention  is  nomination 

by  petition ;  this  is  commonly  used  for  the 

Encourages  .         . 

Independent  nomination  of  members  of  boards  of  educa- 
tion,  and  other  non-partisan  candidates.  Un- 
der this  plan,  a  candidate  may  be  nominated  by  filing 
with  the  election  officers  a  petition,  signed  by  a  cer- 
tain number  of  voters,  who  are  usually  required  to 
pledge  that  they  will  support  the  candidate  named  in 
the  petition. 

Some  States  permit  all  local  officers  to  be  nominated 


POLITICAL  PARTIES  AND  THEIR  WORK        37 

by  petition.  Then  if  both  parties  nominate  undesir- 
able candidates,  independent  voters  may  organize,  and 
name  a  good  man.  The  petition  method  thus  furnishes 
independent  voters  with  a  powerful  weapon,  and  aids 
in  securing  good  nominations  by  the  political  parties. 
38.  The  Party  Committees.  Since  the  convention 
is  only  a  temporary  body,  a  permanent  agency  is 
needed  to  carry  on  the  everyday  business  of 

.      TT  .1  J'  Functions 

party  management.  Hence  the  convention 
elects  standing  committees  —  national,  State,  and  lo- 
cal —  which  manage  party  affairs  until  the  next  con- 
vention. It  is  the  business  of  the  standino^  committees 
to  issue  calls  for  primaries  and  conventions,  to  manage 
campaigns,  organize  political  clubs,  and  in  general  to 
advance  the  party's  interests. 

The  entire  group  of  party  committees  is  spoken  of 
as  the  "  machine  "  or  "  organization."  We  often  hear 
the  party  machine  severely  denounced,  espe-  The  party 
cially  when  it  dictates  nominations,  thus  dom-  "^acMne 
inating  instead  of  serving  the  party.  To  accomplish 
this  result,  the  machine  must  control  the  primaries; 
for  only  in  this  way  can  delegates  be  chosen  who 
are  favorable  to  the  wishes  of  the  orofanization.  Local 
committees  often  make  up  a  ticket  or  slate  previous 
to  the  primary,  and  endeavor  to  secure  the  election 
of  "  hand-picked  "  convention  delegates.  This  usurpa- 
tion of  power  is  frequently  successful,  owing  to  the 
lack  of  interest  taken  by  the  ordinary  voter  in  party 
management.  Thus  control  of  nominations  and  party 
policies  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  committees,  which 
are  supposed  to  be  only  agencies  for  carrying  out  the 
will  of  the  voters. 


38  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

Within  recent  years  there  has  been  a  marked  tend- 
ency for  political  organizations  to  pass  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  sins^le  person.  Owins^  to  his  superior 

The  "Boss"        .  .  . 

skill  and  sagacity,  some  leader  often  wins  the 
title  of  party  "  Boss "  by  establishing  himself  as  the 
chief  controlling  factor  in  local  or  even  in  State  party 
affairs.  Large  cities  have  commonly  been  the  most 
favorable  fields  for  the  "  Boss  ''  and  for  machine  con- 
trol generally,  because  of  the  numerous  ofi&ces  and  the 
frequent  opportunities  to  secure  illicit  gains.  Some- 
times the  sphere  of  the  "Boss''  is  larger  than  the 
city ;  he  may  control  the  party  organization  of  the 
entire  State,  thus  establishing  himself  as  a  State 
"  Boss." 

39.  Party  Responsibility.  The  great  problem  in 
American  politics  is  to  make  the  political  party  in 
fact,  as  well  as  in  theory,  responsible  to  its 
must  con-  members.  Too  often  the  ordinary  citizen  is 
^°  ^  ®*  compelled  to  choose  between  candidates  for 
office  who  have  been  nominated  by  the  small  group 
of  politicians  in  control  of  each  party.  The  right  to 
choose  between  two  candidates  in  whose  nomination 
the  voter  has  had  nothing  to  say  may  be  democratic 
government  in  form,  but  it  is  not  in  substance.  Since 
the  parties  control  the  government,  it  is  essential  to 
representative  rule  that  the  parties  themselves  be 
effectually  controlled  by  their  members. 

Serious  abuses  on  the  part  of  the  machine  some- 
times end  in  a  revolt  within  the  ranks  of  the  party. 
The  rebellious  members  may  support  the  candidates 
of  the  opposing  party  as  a  rebuke  to  machine  methods, 
or  else  form  an  organization  within  their  own  party 


POLITICAL  PARTIES  AND  THEIR  WORK        39 

with  which  to  fight  the  machine.  Direct  nominations 
constitute  the  most  promising  means  of  checking 
high-handed  methods  of  the  party  organization ;  but 
up  to  the  present,  no  remedy  has  been  found  which 
will  effectually  prevent  the  tendency  of  party  organi- 
zations to  dominate,  rather  than  to  serve  their  party. 
Thus  we  see  that  the  man  who  does  his  full  duty 
by  his  country  must  take  an  active  part  in  political 
life.  Practical  results  can  be  accomplished 
only  when  a  man  acts  in  combination  with  duty  in 
others.  "  If  he  is  a  Republican,  let  him  join 
his  local  Republican  association ;  if  a  Democrat,  the 
Democratic  association;  if  an  Independent, then  let  him 
put  himself  in  touch  with  those  who  think  as  he  does. 
In  any  event,  let  him  make  himself  an  active  force,  and 
make  his  influence  felt.  Whether  he  works  within  or 
without  party  lines,  he  can  surely  find  plenty  of  men 
who  are  desirous  of  good  government,  and  who,  if 
they  act  together,  become  at  once  a  power  on  the  side 
of  righteousness."  ^ 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  is  a  political  party  ?  Describe  the  functions  which  it 
performs. 

2.  Prepare  a  report  upon  the  principles  and  leaders  of  the  Fed- 
eralist party. 

3.  Describe  the  principles  of  Jefferson  and  the  Democratic-Re- 
publican party. 

4.  AVhat  were  the  political  principles  of  the  Whig  party  ? 

5.  Give  an  account  of  the  rise  of  the  present  Republican  party. 

6.  Describe  the  political  parties  and  issues  in  the  campaign  of 
1860. 

7.  How  many  members  compose  the  Democratic  State  commit- 

^  Roosevelt,  Theodore,  American  Ideals,  p.  39. 


40  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

tee  in  your  commonwealth  ?  The  State  committee  of  the  Re« 
publican  party  ?  How  are  the  members  of  each  committee 
chosen  ? 

8.  Who  are  the  members  of  the  local  county  committees  in  your 
county,  city,  ward,  and  precinct  ?  How  are  they  chosen  ? 

9.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  party  machine  ?  The  party 
boss  ?  Name  the  chief  party  leaders  in  your  community. 

10.  Describe  the  work  performed  by  the  party  machine.  (Bryce, 
James,  The  American  Commonwealth,  ii,  pp.  90-96.) 

11.  What  were  the  principal  issues  between  the  two  parties  at 
your  last  State  election?  Who  were  the  leading  candidates  of 
each  party  ?  Results  of  the  election  ? 

12.  Give  the  same  facts  with  regard  to  your  municipal  election. 

13.  In  the  choice  of  local  officers,  which  is  of  greater  importance 
to  the  voter  —  that  a  candidate  belongs  to  a  particular  party, 
or  that  he  possess  a  high  degree  of  honesty  and  ability  ? 

14.  Are  memcers  of  your  board  of  education  chosen  on  a  party 
ticket,  or  nominated  by  petition  and  chosen  by  ballots  which 
contain  no  party  emblems  or  names  ?  Give  arguments  iu 
favor  of  the  latter  method. 

15.  Answer  the  same  questions  with  regard  to  candidates  for  the 
judiciary  in  your  State. 

16.  What  are  the  arguments  in  favor  of  fewer  elective  offices  and 
short  ballots  ?  (Kaye,  P.  L.,  Readings,  pp.  384-391.) 

17.  In  your  State  are  candidates  for  office  required  to  file  a  state- 
ment of  their  election  expenses  ?  What  is  the  object  of  such 
a  requirement  ? 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   PROTECTION   OF   THE   PUBLIC 

40.  Why  Protection  is  Needed.  We  have  learned 
from  Chapter  II  that  the  most  important  function 
which  government  performs  is  the  protec-  Qovern- 
tion  of  its  citizens.  No  matter  what  other  SJert^S- 
services  it  might  render,  no  one  would  care  ^^^^^ 
to  live  under  a  government  which  did  not  protect 
the  lives  and  property  of  its  citizens.  You  have  no 
doubt  read  of  those  misguided  men  called  anarchists 
who  are  opposed  to  all  government  on  the  ground 
that  it  interferes  with  the  liberty  of  the  individual. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  men  can  enjoy  real  liberty  only 
under  the  protection  which  government  affords ;  for 
without  that  protection  no  one  would  be  secure  in 
the  enjoyment  of  his  life  and  property. 

Suppose  your  teacher  should  tell  you  that  hereafter 
there  are  to  be  no  rules  in  your  school,  and  that  pupils 
may  do  just  as  they  please  :  study  or  not,  as 
they  prefer ;  talk  or  play  games  whenever  ment  in  the 
they  like;  come  to  school  or  not,  as  they  ^^^°^^ 
choose;  destroy  their  textbooks  or  carve  up  their 
desks,  if  the  fancy  pleases  them.  What  kind  of  school 
do  you  imagine  you  would  have  ?  Perhaps  some  of 
you  might  enjoy  this  school  for  a  little  while ;  but  is 
it  not  likely  that  the  more  sensible  members  of  your 
class  would  soon  decide  that  rules  are  necessary  for 
the  school  if  it  is  to  serve  its  purpose  as  a  place  for 


4«  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

your  education  ?  Would  you  not  in  all  probability 
agree  that  rules  forbidding  whispering,  requiring 
earnest  effort  from  each  pupil,  and  demanding  regu- 
lar and  punctual  attendance  on  the  part  of  all,  are 
necessary  for  the  common  good  of  your  school? 

41.  Laws  and  Lawmaking.  Equally  necessary  are 
laws,  which  in  fact  are  only  rules  that  have  been 
adopted  for  the  common  good  of  society.  Even  if  all 
men  were  honest,  and  truthful,  and  well  disposed 
toward  one  another,  laws  would  still  be  needed  for 
our  mutual  guidance ;  how  much  more  necessary  are 
they  when  some  men  are  false,  and  dishonest,  and 
malicious ! 

Who  makes  the  laws  or  rules  by  which  our  conduct 
must  be  regulated?  Under  our  republican  form  of 
How  laws  government,  the  people  themselves,  acting 
axe  made  through  their  representatives.  We  elect  the 
members  of  the  legislature  which  meets  at  the  State 
capital  and  passes  our  laws ;  and  we  elect  the  gov- 
ernor, the  sheriff,  and  the  other  principal  ofl&cers 
whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  these  laws  are  enforced. 

Hence  the  policeman  who  arrests  a  thief,  or  who 
breaks  up  a  disorderly  crowd,  is  not  enforcing  his 
own  ideas  of  what  is  right  or  proper;  he 
shonid  oDey  is  enforcing  the  rules  which  the  citizens  of 
the  law  ^Y^^  community  have  adopted  for  their  com- 
mon protection.  Respect  for  the  law  and  prompt  obe- 
dience to  its  commands  is  the  first  and  greatest  duty 
which  each  citizen  owes  to  his  country.  If  the  law 
seems  unwise  or  unjust,  let  him  seek  to  have  it  re- 
pealed ;  but  so  long  as  it  is  the  law,  he  should  obey  it. 
Otherwise  he  does  not  deserve  the  protection  of  the 


THE   PROTECTION  OF  THE  PUBLIC  43 

government  whose  laws  safeguard  our  lives,  our  pro- 
perty, and  our  homes. 

42.  Local  Peace  Officers  and  their  Duties.  The 
preservation  of  public  peace  and  order  is  primarily  a 
function  of  local  officials.  In  rural  communi- 
ties, the  constable  is  the  officer  who  enforces 
law  and  order;  while  in  the  cities  this  duty  is  per- 
formed by  policemen  who  patrol  regular  routes  or 
^'  beats."  The  chief  duty  of  the  police  is  to  prevent 
crimes  and  to  arrest  offenders ;  but  they  perform 
many  other  important  services,  such  as  controlling 
traffic  on  crowded  streets,  holding  back  the  crowds 
which  gather  at  fires,  giving  help  in  case  of  accidents, 
and  answering  the  questions  of  strangers  or  other 
persons  who  need  to  be  shown  their  way.  The  police* 
men  are  under  the  direction  of  a  chief  of  police,  who 
is  generally  chosen  by  a  board  of  police  commission- 
ers, or  appointed  by  the  director  of  public  safety. ^ 

Each  county  has  an  important  peace  officer  known 
as  the  sheriff,  elected  by  the  voters.  The  office  of 
sheriff  is  of   very  ancient  orio^in;  it  dates 

•^  ^  T}ie  sheriff 

back  more  than  fourteen  centuries  to  Anglo- 
Saxon  England.  In  those  early  days,  the  counties  of 
England  were  called  shires,  and  the  chief  military 
officer  of  the  shire  was  the  shire-reeve,  or  sheriff. 
This  officer  led  the  shire's  fighting  men  in  time  of 
war ;  in  time  of  peace  it  was  his  duty  to  execute  the 
laws  of  the  land  and  to  maintain  order  throughout 
the  shire.  Similar  powers  to  enforce  the  law  and  to 
arrest  offenders  are  to-day  vested  in  our  sheriff,  aided 

^  In  New  York  City  the  police  force  numbers  10,000  men,  a  larger 
army  than  the  one  commanded  by  Washington  during  the  Kevolution. 


44  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

by  his  deputies.  If  necessary  he  may  call  upon  any 
able-bodied  men  in  the  county  to  assist  him  in  making 
arrests ;  this  is  called  summoning  a  posse.  The  sheriff 
also  has  charge  of  the  county  jail,  and  the  prisoners 
confined  there. 

43.  How  the  State  and  National  Governments  help 
preserve  Order.  If  a  riot  breaks  out  of  so  serious  a 
The  state  character  that  the  sheriff  and  the  police  find 
°^*^*  themselves  unable  to  suppress  it,  the  sheriff 
may  request  the  governor  of  the  State  to  send  the 
militia  to  his  aid.  All  able-bodied  men  in  the  State 
between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five  years 
belong  to  the  militia,  and  may  be  called  upon  for 
military  service  if  needed.  But  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances only  two  or  three  companies  of  the  or- 
ganized militia  or  national  guard  are  called  out  to 
suppress  a  riot. 

If  the  State  militia  cannot  check  the  rioters,  the 
governor  may  request  the  President  to  send  federal 
troops  to  the  scene ;  and  if  necessary,  the 
President  will  use  the  whole  military  power 
of  the  national  government  to  suppress  the  outbreak. 
During  the  great  railway  strike  of  1894,  President 
Cleveland  sent  federal  troops  into  Illinois  to  end  the 
lawlessness  which  the  State  authorities  could  not 
suppress.  The  worst  cases  of  rioting  and  lawlessness 
soon  disappear  when  the  regulars  arrive  on  the  scene. 

44.  The  Courts  and  Law  Enforcement.  One  of 
the  most  dangerous  foes  to  popular  government  is 
the  mob  which  seeks  to  lynch  some  person  accused  of 
crime.  Lynching  is  as  lawless  as  the  offense  which 
the  mob  seeks  to  punish ;  it  substitutes  the  passion 


THE  PROTECTION  OF   THE  PUBLIC  45 

of  the  mob  for  the  procedure  of  the  courts,  and  denies 
its  victim  the  fair  trial  to  which  he  is  entitled  under 
the  law. 

Only  the  courts  have  power  to  decide  whether  a 
person  is  guilty  of  crime;  and  it   is   before   these 
tribunals  that   accused   persons   should   be 
brought  to  trial.   The  accused  must  have  a  accused 
copy  of  the  formal  charge  or  "  indictment " 
against  him ;  he  is  entitled  to  an  attorney  for  his  de- 
fense ;  and  to  be  confronted  by  the  witnesses  who 
testify  against  him.  His  trial  must  be  a  public  one, 
and  his  guilt  must  be  proven  to  the  satisfaction  of 
each  member  of  an  impartial  jury  of  twelve  men. 

Such  are  the  safeguards  approved  by  the  wisdom 
of  the  ages  as  necessary  to  prevent  injustice.  The 
welfare  of  society  demands  that  no  guilty  per- 
son should  escape  punishment  for  his  offense  ;  guard  our 
but  it  is  even  more  important  that  no  innocent 
man  should  suffer  for  the  crime  of  another.  The  courts 
and  the  laws  constitute  the  great  safeguards  of  indi- 
vidual liberty,  as  well  as  the  chief  agency  for  the  sup- 
pression of  crime  and  disorder.  The  man  who  breaks 
the  laws,  the  mob  which  seeks  to  lynch  a  criminal, 
the  anarchist  who  would  overthrow  organized  govern- 
ment, all  are  in  the  same  dishonorable  class :  they  are 
traitors  to  our  country,  like  the  Benedict  Arnold  whose 
name  stands  for  infamy  in  American  history. 

45.  The  Punishment  of  Offenders.    Persons    ac- 
cused of  crime  are  taken  to  the  police  station,  and 
unless  released  on  bail,  they  are  placed  in  the 
county  jail  to  await  their  trial.  If  convicted 
of  a  minor  offense,  they  are  imprisoned  in  the  city 


46  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

workhouse;  but  if  the  offense  is  a  serious  one,  called 
a  felonjj  they  are  sent  to  the  State  penitentiary.  The 
object  of  punishment  is  to  protect  society  by  deter- 
ring others  from  committing  similar  acts ;  and  if  pos- 
sible, to  reform  the  offender  and  induce  him  to  become 
a  law-abiding  citizen. 

In  many  States,  special  prisons  known  as  reforma- 
tories are  provided  for  youthful  offenders,  to  prevent 
Juvenile  them  from  coming  in  contact  with  hardened 
offenders  criminals.  For  similar  reasons,  special  juve- 
nile courts  are  provided  in  many  cities,  separate  from 
the  regular  police  court,  for  the  trial  of  boys  and  girls 
who  have  broken  the  laws.  These  youthful  offenders 
often  err  from  ignorance  rather  than  from  malicious 
intent;  and  the  object  of  juvenile  courts  and  juvenile 
homes  is  to  show  them  the  error  of  their  ways  before 
it  is  too  late ;  otherwise  the  petty  offender  of  to-day 
may  become  the  hardened  criminal  of  to-morrow. 

46.  Protection  from  Fire.  But  you  are  not  to  sup- 
pose that  the  prevention  and  punishment  of  crime  is 
Losses  1)7  the  only  way  in  which  government  protects 
^*  us.  This  is  a  fundamental  service,  but  there 

are  many  other  ways  by  which  government  protects 
our  lives  and  property.  You  are  all  familiar  with 
the  work  of  the  noble  firemen  who  risk  their  lives  to 
put  out  fires.  In  spite  of  their  efforts,  the  loss  by  fire 
in  the  United  States  is  more  than  $250,000,000  each 
year.  To  cope  with  this  destroying  element,  nearly 
all  cities  have  a  force  of  regular  firemen  organized 
into  companies,  and  equipped  with  modern  apparatus 
for  fighting  fires. 

All  of  you  know  about  the  fire  alarm  system,  by 


THE   PROTECTION  OF  THE   PUBLIC  47 

which  a  fire  can  be  immediately  announced  to  the 
nearest  station.    Within  a  minute  after  the 
alarm  is  received,  the  steam  fire  engines,  the  m«ntand 
hook  and  ladder,  and  other  equipment  of  the 
fire  department  will  be  driven  down  the  street  at  full 
speed,  with  the  firemen  ready  for  aay  emergency.^ 
Fire  towers  have  been  invented  to  aid  in  throwing 
water  on  high  buildings;  and  some  cities  located  on 
rivers  have  fire  tuo-s  which  throw  immense  streams  of 
water.    In  equipment  and  efficiency,  the  fire  depart- 
ments of  the  United  States  are  far  in  advance  of  those 
of  any  other  country. 

Many  fires  would  not  occur,  or  could  be  checked 
with  less  difficulty,  if  the  building  rules  of  the  city 
were  more  strictly  enforced.  Generally  the  Buuding 
construction  of  wooden  buildings  within  the  "prevent* 
central  part  of  the  city  is  forbidden,  this  be-  *^" 
ing  known  as  the  "  fire  limits."  Before  a  building  is 
constructed  anywhere  in  the  city,  a  permit  must  be 
secured  from  the  city's  building  inspector,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  see  that  only  safe  structures  are  erected.  But 
these  rules  are  often  disregarded,  sometimes  with  ter- 
rible consequences.  The  horror  of  the  Iroquois  theatre 
fire  in  Chicago  might  have  been  averted  if  the  fire 
rules  had  been  enforced ;  the  school  children  at  Col- 
linwood,  Ohio,  would  not  have  perished  had  the  doors 
of  their  schoolhouse  opened  outward.^  Proper  con- 

1  In  larger  cities  having  the  most  modern  equipment,  fire  "  autos  " 
are  used. 

^  The  Iroquois  theatre  fire,  which  caused  the  death  of  531  persons, 
occurred  in  1903.  At  the  CoUinwood  school  fire  (1908),  160  pupils 
lost  their  lives.  To  guard  against  another  catastrophe  of  this  kind,  the 
State  of  Ohio  has  nassed  strict  laws  governing  the  construction  of 
school  buildings 


48  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

struction  of  buildings,  safe  and  adequate  means  of 
exit — these  simple  precautions  you  might  think  every- 
one would  observe ;  but  they  are  often  overlooked  or 
ignored,  criminal  carelessness  which  results  in  the  loss 
of  thousands  of  human  lives. 

47.  The  Importance  of  Public  Health.  As  you  will 
learn  in  your  later  study  of  history,  ancient  Greece 
gave  to  the  world  magnificent  achievements  in 
ideal -a  sculpturc,  architecture,  philosophy,  and  liter- 
ature; so  that  the  world  of  to-day  still  turns 
for  inspiration  to  the  master  minds  of  classic  Greece. 
The  Greeks  also  taught  the  world  the  importance  of 
physical  training  and  physical  well-being,  the  need  of 
sound  and  well-developed  bodies  in  order  that  each 
individual  might  fulfill  his  part  in  doing  the  world's 
work.  The  Greek  nation  believed  one  of  the  chief 
purposes  of  government  to  be  the  care  of  the  physical 
health  and  well-being  of  its  citizens. 

To-day  we  realize  more  fully  than  ever  before  that 
the  Greeks  were  right  in  attributing  so  much  import- 
ance to  physical  well-beinff.   In  our  schools 

School  1.      J  o 

medical  in-  we  give  morc  attention  than  formerly  to 
spec  on  physical  training  and  education ;  we  recog- 
nize the  truth  of  the  maxim  "  a  sound  mind  in  a 
sound  body."  Medical  inspection  of  school  children 
is  now  carried  on  in  many  cities  by  physicians  employed 
bv  the  board  of  education,  or  by  the  board  of  health. 
The  object  of  this  inspection  is  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  contagious  disease,  and  to  induce  parents  to  cor- 
rect such  physical  defects  as  adenoids  and  enlarged 
tonsils,  which  interfere  with  the  child's  physical  and 
mental  growth. 


A  STREET-CLEANING  SQUAD  AT  WORK 

In  New  York,  the  force  of  laborers  in  the  street-cleaning  department  is  uniformed;  the  sweep- 
ers wearing  white  duck  suits  and  helmets,  —  whence  the  nickname  "white  wings";  the 
men  employed  on  the  carts,  brown ;  and  the  foremen  and  superintendents,  gray.  This  force 
totals  considerably  over  5000.  The  total  length  of  paved  streets  under  their  care  is  about 
2000  miles,  and  the  area  in  square  yards  over  30,000,000.  The  streets  are  swept  and  scraped 
for  the  most  part  by  hand,  although  machines  also  are  used,  especially  for  flushing  and 
sp'rlnkling  the  roadways.    The  sidewalks  are  cared  for  by  the  owners  of  abutting  property. 


Courtesy,  Knox  Automobile  Company' 
AN  AUTOMOBILE  FIRE-ENGINE   OF   THE  LATEST  TYPE 


Co!irt''si/,  Department  of  Health,  New  York. 
MILK  INSPECTION  AT  A  RETAIL  STORE 

An  examiner  is  testing  the  quality  and  purity  of  the  milk  before  allowing  its  distribution 

to  consumers. 


m^:%^f  ' 

Courtesy,  Child  Weljare  Exhibit  ana  JJepartineut  oj  Heaitn,  i\eu;  1  orK. 
PHYSICAL  EXAMINATION  FOR  WORKING  PAPERS 

The  laws  of  many  States  require  that  all  children  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen 
shall  have  certificates  of  good  health  before  they  can  be  employed  in  business.  Any  em- 
ployer who  hires  a  child  without  «uch  a  certificate  is  liable  to  a  fine.  The  certificates  are 
sometimes  granted  by  the  Board  of  Health  or  in  some  States  by  an  officer  of  the  Board  of 
Education. 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  THE   PUBLIC  49 

48.  Protection  of  Public  Health  by  the  Local 
Community.  In  each  community  the  protection  of 
public  health  is  primarily  a  duty  of  local  Locaineaith 
officials.  These  generally  include  a  board  o^^^ciais 
of  health,  chosen  by  the  voters ;  a  chief  health 
officer,  aided  in  the  larger  cities  by  a  force  of 
sanitary  police ;  and  a  number  of  city  physicians, 
who  care  for  persons  too  poor  to  employ  medical 
aid.  The  board  of  health  has  power  to  adopt  rules 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  contagious  disease;  these 
rules  are  enforced  by  the  chief  health  officer,  who 
is  generally  a  physician  of  wide  experience.  Every 
physician  in  the  city  must  report  to  the  health  depart- 
ment all  cases  of  contagious  disease  under  his  care. 
The  houses  of  these  persons  are  then  placarded, 
and  all  children  who  live  there  must  remain  away 
from  school  until  the  health  officer  permits  them  to 
return. 

The  sanitary  officers  of  the  health  department  in- 
spect the  milk,  meat,  and  other  foods  offered  for  sale 
in  the  city ;  they  examine  the  kitchens   of 

1  -I  T  I  .  Duties  of 

hotels  and  restaurants  to  see  that  sanitary  sanitary 
conditions  prevail ;  and  they  visit  the  pre- 
mises of  individual  citizens  if  conditions  seem  to  de- 
mand an  investigation.  Surface  wells  are  commonly 
prohibited  in  cities,  because  they  are  often  responsible 
for  epidemics  of  typhoid ;  compulsory  vaccination  is 
generally  insisted  upon  as  a  protection  against  small- 
pox ;  and  many  other  sanitary  regulations  are  adopted 
by  local  health  boards,  and  enforcer!  by  their  officers.. 
Lack  of  proper  sanitation  in  a  single  home  may  in- 
volve the  health  of  an  entire  community,  and  so  the 


50  PREPARING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

community  may  rightly  insist  upon  controlling  the 
conditions  that  affect  its  physical  welfare. 

49.  Health  Services  of  State  and  National  Gov- 
ernments. Control  of  public  health  is  left  primarily 
state  health  ^^  local  boards  and  officials;  but  in  order 
boards  ^j^^^^  important  regulations  may  be  uni- 
formly enforced,  there  is  a  State  board  of  health 
which  aims  to  protect  the  health  of  the  entire  State. 
The  State  board  of  health  adopts  regulations  designed 
to  prevent  the  pollution  of  rivers  and  other  streams ; 
it  enforces  the  laws  concerning  adulteration  of  foods ; 
and  it  administers  the  quarantine  measures  necessary 
to  protect  the  people  of  the  State  from  contagious 
disease. 

The  national  government  also  performs  important 
services  in  protecting  the  public  health.  Immigrants 
Services  oi  landing  in  this  country  are  inspected  by 
^veni^°^*^  physicians  in  the  employ  of  the  federal  gov- 
ment.  ernment.  If  found  to  be  suffering  from  con- 

tagious disease,  they  are  quarantined,  and  in  case  of 
certain  diseases,  returned  to  their  foreign  homes.  Na- 
tional health  officers  sometimes  cooperate  with  State 
officials  in  stamping  out  dangerous  epidemics,  such 
as  yellow  fever  or  smallpox.  A  most  important  step 
in  the  protection  of  the  public  health  was  recently 
taken  by  Congress  in  passing  a  pure  food  law.  All 
foods  and  drugs  offered  for  sale  in  receptacles  must 
have  their  contents  plainly  marked  on  the  outside, 
and  if  adulterated  in  any  way,  that  fact  must  be 
stated.  "  Pure  i^.aple  sugar,"  in  other  words,  must  be 
in  fact  pure  ;  this  law  therefore  protects  honest  manu- 
facturers as  well  as  the  public. 


THE  PROTECTION   OF   THE   PUBLIC  51 

50.  Important  Aids  to  Public  Health.  One  of  the 
most  important  factors  in  the  health  of  any  community 
is  a  water-supply  free  from  the  germs  of  dis-  ^^^  ^^ter- 
ease.  Costly  filtration  plants  are  sometimes  ^^^^^'^ 
necessary  to  insure  this ;  while  other  cities  are  able 
to  secure  pure  water  from  mountain  streams,  or  from 
the  Great  Lakes  or  rivers.  In  most  of  the  larger  cities 
of  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in  many  smaller  ones, 
the  waterworks  system  is  owned  by  the  municipality. 
The  cost  of  operation  is  paid  from  rates  or  charges 
levied  against  users  of  the  water. 

A  sanitary  sewerage  system  is  likewise  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  health  of  the  city.  Sewers  ge^er 
are  constructed  under  the  supervision  of  city  *^^*®°^ 
officials,  the  cost  being  assessed  against  the  owners 
of  adjoining  property. 

Street  cleaning,  and  the  removal  of  waste  and  gar- 
bage, are  other  functions  of  vital  concern  to  the  pub- 
lie  health.   This  service  often  involves  the  street 
employment  of  a  large  force  of  men,  the  work  <'i«"^«^ 
being  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  city  officials. 

51.  Street  Lighting.  Street  lighting  serves  to  pro- 
tect the  public,  for  darkness  is  the  friend  of  crime. 
In  a  number  of  cities,  the  lis^htins^  plants  are 

the  property  01  the  municipality ;  but  more  and  their 

1       ,1  -I    «  .       ,  Importance 

commonly  they  are  owned  oy  private  com- 
panies which  the  city  has  authorized  to  perform  this 
service.  This  permission  is  granted  in  the  form  of  a 
franchise  or  contract  between  the  city  and  the  com- 
pany. The  franchise  regulates  the  rates  which  may  be 
charged,  and  defines  the  rights  of  the  company  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  city  on  the  other.  Since  the 


52  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

franchise  gives  the  company  a  monopoly,  or  exclusive 
right  to  render  this  service,  it  is  essential  that  its 
terms  shall  safeguard  carefully  the  rights  of  the  com- 
munity. Franchises  are  granted  by  the  city  council ; 
but  in  many  cities,  these  grants  must  be  submitted 
for  approval  to  a  popular  vote,  provided  a  certain  num- 
ber of  voters  request  this  referendum, 

52.  Public  Parks  and  Playgrounds.  Those  of  you 
who  have  yards  about  your  homes  will  know  how  to 
Municipal  Sympathize  with  the  thousands  of  boys  and 
playgrounds  g'j^jg  j^^  many  of  our  cities  who  have  no  place 
to  play  except  the  streets.  Everyone  agrees  that  child- 
ren should  have  outdoor  play,  in  order  that  they  may 
have  a  healthy  and  happy  childhood  ;  but  in  the  rapid 
building  up  of  our  cities,  provision  for  public  play- 
grounds has  often  been  overlooked.  Within  recent 
years,  men  have  begun  to  realize  that  in  many  cities 
children  are  being  deprived  of  their  natural  birthright 
—  a  place  in  which  to  play.  So  a  national  playground 
association  has  been  formed,  which  aims  to  arouse 
public  interest  and  to  secure  playgrounds  in  every 
city.  Over  two  hundred  cities  have  now  set  aside  pub' 
lie  playgrounds,  equipped  with  gymnastic  apparatus, 
swimming  pools,  and  ball  grounds.  In  many  cities 
the  board  of  education  aims  to  provide  a  playground 
in  connection  with  each  school  building ;  these  are 
used  by  the  children  before  school  and  during  recess, 
and  sometimes  are  kept  open  in  the  afternoon  and 
during  vacations. 

Playgrounds  are  intended  only  for  boys  and  girls ; 
but  both  old  and  young  may  enjoy  the  beautiful  parks 
which  are  provided  by  our  city  governments.  Parks 


THE   PROTECTION   OF  THE  PUBLIC  5S 

are  especially  necessary  in  the  larger  cities,  with  their 
congested  population ;  but  in  smaller  cities  as  well, 
they  afford  a  much-needed  opportunity  for  rest  p^uuc 
and  recreation,  for  the  enjoyment  of  fresh  ^^^^ 
pure  air,  and  grass  and  trees  and  flowers.  The  botani- 
cal garden  and  zoological  museum  —  better  known  to 
children  as  the  "  zoo  "  —  are  sometimes  features  of  the 
pubHc  park;  and  provision  is  frequently  made  for 
outdoor  sports,  swimming  pools,  and  park  gymnasiums. 

53.  Regulation  of  Business  and  Occupations.  Cer- 
tain kinds  of  business  are  regulated  by  government 
for  the  sake  of  the  public  health  or  safety.  Thus  the 
manufacture  of  explosives  is  prohibited  in  cities ; 
slaughter  houses  are  permitted  only  in  certain  sec- 
tions of  the  city,  where  the  business  will  not  become  a 
public  nuisance ;  and  factories  are  often  required  to 
use  smoke  consumers,  which  aid  in  consuming  the 
smoke  that  otherwise  pours  out  of  the  factory  chim- 
neys over  the  city. 

The  liquor  traffic  has  been  regulated  in  various 
ways  in  order  to  protect  the  public  welfare.  Before 
the  adoption  of  national  prohibition,  thirty-  Theiiauor 
one  States  had  prohibited  the  manufacture  ^^^^ 
and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  Others  permitted 
the  voters  of  local  areas  to  decide  by  popular  vote 
whether  saloons  should  be  licensed.  Finally,  the 
supporters  of  prohibition  secured  the  passage  by 
Congress  of  a  constitutional  amendment  providing 
for  national  prohibition.  This  amendment  was  rat- 
ified by  three  fourths  of  the  State  legislatures,  and 
became  part  of  the  national  constitution  in  1919. 

54.  The  Need  of   Capable  Officials.    From  thia 


64>  PREPARING   FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

chapter  we  have  seen  that  government  protects  the 
Important  citizens  from  the  perils  arising  from  disease, 
joTafgov-  f^o^^  losses  by  fire,  and  from  the  criminals 
ernments  ^^}^Q  ^re  a  constaiit  menace  to  life  and  pro- 
perty. This  protection  is  generally  afforded  by  local 
governments ;  the  State  government  acts  only  when 
the  welfare  of  the  whole  State  demands  it,  and  the 
national  government  only  when  national  interests  are 
at  stake.  So  the  matters  w^hich  concern  us  most  are 
in  charge  of  our  local  governments.  That  our  streets 
shall  be  clean,  and  safe,  and  well  lighted,  our  police 
and  fire  departments  honestly  and  efficiently  man- 
aged, our  water-supply  pure  and  adequate  —  these  are 
matters  more  vital  to  us  than  the  issues  of  State  and 
national  politics,  which  generally  attract  so  much  more 
attention. 

Fortunately,  men  are  coming  to  pay  less  attention 
to  the  question  whether  a  street  commissioner  is  a 

Democrat  or  a  Republican,  and  more  to  the 
Independent  question  of  his  honesty  and  efficiency  ;  and 

this  independence  in  the  selection  of  local  offi- 
cials should  prove  the  salvation  of  our  local  govern- 
ments. James  Bryce,  our  most  kindly  foreign  critic, 
has  said  that  "  the  government  of  American  cities  is 
the  one  conspicuous  failure  of  the  United  States."  ^ 
In  so  far  as  our  city  governments  have  failed,  the  fail- 
ure has  been  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  our  city  offi- 
cials have  been  chosen  because  of  their  party  standing, 
rather  than  because  of  their  record  for  honesty  and 
efficiency.  The  remedy  consists  in  greater  watchful- 
ness on  the  part  of  each  individual  citizen,  and  abso* 

1  Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth,  i,  p.  637. 


THE   PROTECTION   OF  THE   PUBLIC  55 

lute  independence  in  voting  for  local  officials.  The 
cities  of  Europe  have  set  us  a  good  example  in  this 
respect ;  the  mayor  of  the  European  city  is  generally 
chosen  because  of  his  qualifications  for  the  position, 
not  because  of  his  views  on  national  politics.  The 
great  need  of  our  American  cities  is  less  politics  and 
more  efficiency  in  their  management. 

55.  Responsibility  of  the  Individual.  But  while  we 
look  to  government  for  the  protection  of  life,  health, 
and  property,  we  must  not  overlook  our  own  responsi- 
bility in  the  matter.  We  should  remember  that  the 
health  of  the  whole  community  depends  largely  upon 
the  watchfulness  and  care  of  each  individual.  If  each 
one  of  us  keeps  his  own  premises  clean,  he  is  protect- 
ing the  health  of  the  entire  neighborhood  as  well  as 
his  own.  The  boy  or  girl  who  throws  waste  paper  or 
rubbish  upon  the  lawn  or  the  street  is  making  needless 
work  for  the  community  which  is  striving  after  clean- 
liness and  health.  The  man  who  spits  on  the  sidewalk 
or  in  any  public  place  is  not  only  indulging  a  filthy 
habit,  but  by  example  if  in  no  other  way  he  may  be 
adding  to  the  danger  from  tuberculosis  —  the  dread 
disease  which  destroys  thousands  each  year.  Govern- 
ment can  do  much,  but  it  cannot  make  all  individuals 
careful  of  the  rights  of  others,  clean  in  their  personal 
habits,  painstaking  in  the  care  of  their  surroundings, 
and  at  all  times  scrupulously  obedient  to  the  laws.  For 
this  result  it  relies  on  the  boys  and  girls  whom  it  is 
educating  at  the  public  expense,  and  who  will  some 
day  be  responsible  for  all  the  conditions  that  sur- 
round them. 


66  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 


QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  authorities  have  charge  of  the  maintenance  of  public 
peace  and  order  in  your  community?  How  are  these  officers 
chosen?  Term?  How  removed? 

2.  Explain  how  the  federal  government  cooperates  in  maintain- 
ing order  in  your  commonwealth,  both  in  suppressing  crimes 
against  federal  laws,  and  in  supporting  the  authority  of  the 
State  government. 

3.  How  many  men  are  included  in  the  national  guard  of  your 
State?  What  is  the  period  of  enlistment?  Where  are  the 
men  drilled  ? 

4.  Under  what  circumstances  may  the  governor  of  your  State  call 
out  its  militia  for  active  service  ?  Has  it  been  necessary  to 
call  out  the  militia  within  recent  years  ? 

6.  Give  instances  of  important  health  regulations  adopted  by 
your  local  health  department. 

6.  Does  regulation  of  the  liquor  traffic  in  your  commonwealth 
take  the  form  of  State  prohibition,  local  option,  or  the  license 
system?  What  are  the  principal  arguments  in  favor  of  State 
prohibition  ?  Of  the  local  option  system  ? 

7.  What  is  a  felony  under  the  laws  of  your  State  ?  Name  several 
crimes  which  are  felonies. 

8.  What  industries  are  carried  on  in  your  State  penitentiary  ? 
Explain  the  advantages  to  the  State  and  to  the  prisoners  of 
keeping  the  latter  employed  at  useful  labor.  What  argu- 
ments are  sometimes  urged  against  prison  labor  ? 

9.  What  industrial  or  reform  schools  are  there  in  your  State? 
Are  they  accomplishing  good  results  ? 

10.  Is  there  a  juvenile  court  in  your  community  ?  If  so,  describe 
its  work,  and  that  of  the  probation  officers. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PUBLIC    EDUCATION 

56.  Attitude  of  the  Community  toward  Education. 
No  doubt  all  of  you  know  something  about  Shake- 
speare, the  greatest  dramatist  of  the  English-speaking 
world ;  and  some  day  you  will  probably  read  his  great 
plays.  In  one  of  these,  As  You  Like  It,  this  great 
author  represents  the  life  of  man  as  a  drama  in  seven 
acts,  from  infancy  to  old  age.  The  second  act  in  life's 
drama  is  the  school  age;  and  Shakespeare  pictures 
for  us ; — 

"  The  whining  schoolboy,  with  his  satchel, 
And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  snail 
Unwillingly  to  school." 

Each  September  when  school  opens,  the  men  who 
draw  cartoons  for  our  newspapers  use  Shakespeare's 
idea  for  their  inspiration ;  they  picture  the  schoolboy 
torn  away  from  his  vacation  joys,  and  dragging  his 
unwilling  steps  toward  school.  It  is  an  interesting 
question  whether  the  cartoonists  are  right,  or  whether 
boys  and  girls  have  changed  their  attitude  toward 
school  since  Shakespeare's  time. 

57.  What  it  means  not  to  have  Public  Schools. 
What  is  the  use  of  going  to  school?  To-day  some 
boys  and  girls,  like  the  schoolboy  of  Shake- 
speare's play,  still  go  because  they  are  sent ;  upon  edu- 
but  most  of  them  go  for  a  better  reason. 

Why  not  let  children  go  to  school  or  not,  as  they 


58  PREPARING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

prefer?  Why  compel  all  parents,  even  the  poorest,  to 
send  their  children  to  school?  Why  should  the  people 
be  taxed  each  year  immense  sums  —  equal  to  the 
value  of  all  the  gold  taken  from  all  the  mines  in  the 
world  —  in  order  to  provide  free  public  schools? 
Why  not  let  each  parent  pay  for  the  education  of  his 
own  children,  provided  he  desires  to  educate  them? 

Suppose  all  the  public  schools  of  the  land  were  to 
be  closed  to-morrow,  and  the  twenty-one  million  pupils 
Results  oi  who  attend  them  were  allowed  to  remain  at 
Ignorance  j^ome,  or  Were  put  to  work  in  stores,  facto- 
ries, and  on  the  farms,  and  only  those  were  educated 
whose  parents  could  afford  to  send  them  to  private 
schools.  What  kind  of  country  do  you  think  we 
should  have?  You  do  not  need  to  use  your  imagina- 
tion to  picture  this — you  can  read  for  yourselves  the 
story  of  life  in  Turkey,  or  Russia,  or  Africa,  or 
Mexico.  In  these  countries,  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  grow  up  in  dense  ignorance;  and  as  you 
know,  these  are  the  countries  where  crime  abounds, 
where  government  is  despotic,  where  the  people  are 
so  wretchedly  poor  that  they  are  in  constant  danger 
from  famine  and  pestilence.  Should  you  say  that  these 
people  live,  or  that  they  merely  exist? 

58.  First  Purpose  of  Education  —  Material  Pro- 
sperity. So  the  first  great  purpose  of  public  edu- 
Education  catiou  is  to  increase  the  material  prosperity 
earning"  ^^  ^  nation ;  to  raise  its  standard  of  life,  so 
power  j^i^g^j^  j^s  people  shall  have  comfortable  homes, 
and  lead  happy  lives.  Education  means  power — power 
to  earn  money,  power  to  make  a  living.  The  man 
who  cannot  read  and  write  finds  a  hundred  doors  of 


CARNEGIE  INSTITUTE,  PITTSBURGH 

These  buildings,  presented  to  the  city  by  Andrew  Carnegie,  contain  a  public  library,  a  museum 
of  natural  history,  an  art  gallery,  and  a  concert  hall. 


THE  NEW  YORK  STATE  EDUCATION  BUILDING  AT  ALBANY 

This  edifice  houses  the  State  Library,  and  contains  the  administrative  offices  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  the  State  Museum,  and  an  auditorium  seating  one  thousand  persons. 


^^HUH^oir^SS- 

^^■>ds 

i 

* 

lliii 

rffrnp 

HIGH  SCHOOL,   DULUTH,   MINN. 


Courtesy,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  J^ew  I'ork. 
A  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  IN   BROOKLYN,   N.  Y. 


PUBLIC   EDUCATION  59 

employment  shut  in  his  face.  Employers  who  manage 
great  industries  want  workers  who  can  think;  they 
need  active  brains  as  well  as  strong  arms.  The  igno- 
rant man  will  always  do  the  hardest  and  most  poorly 
paid  kind  of  work.  He  is  the  unskilled  laborer  who 
digs  the  ditches,  and  lays  the  railroad  ties,  and  mines 
the  coal,  and  cleans  the  streets.  His  labor  is  both 
necessary  and  honorable,  and  if  you  wish  to  join  him 
in  his  work,  you  can  readily  do  so.  Thousands  of 
boys  leave  school  each  year  for  this  very  purpose; 
and  by  this  action  they  may  forever  close  behind 
them  the  door  to  progress  and  to  a  fair  living  wage. 
When  they  grow  to  manhood,  they  are  likely  to  be- 
long to  that  part  of  our  industrial  workers  who  earn 
less  than  eight  hundred  dollars  a  year.  And  the  girls 
who  are  without  educational  training  may  look  for- 
ward to  joining  that  large  class  of  wage-earning 
women  who  make  less  than  six  hundred  dollars  a 
year.* 

59.  Second  Purpose  of  Education  —  Enjoyment 
of  Life.   But  education  means  more  than  the  power 
to  earn  a  living ;  it  is  tlie  power  to  enjoy  those 
things  in  life  of  greatest  value.  The  educated  of  the  edu- 

A         n       ^  •  .  j_        1     ,1  catedman 

man  has  tor  his  companions  not  only  the  men 
and  women  of  the  world  about  him,  but  also  the  mas- 
ter minds  of  all  ages  and  countries.  Homer  and  Yirgil^ 
Shakespeare  and  Goethe,  Tennyson  and  Longfellow,, 
are  his  friends.    For  him  Gibbon  and  Macaulay  and 

1  The  federal  census  places  the  number  of  wage  earners  employed 
in  all  manufacturing  industries  at  7,036,337.  The  largest  numbers 
are  in  the  following  industries:  cotton  goods,  railway-car  construction, 
printing  and  publishing,  clothing,  and  boots  and  shoes.  In  every 
industry,  trained  and  educated  workers  command  a  better  wage. 


60  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

Green  and  Parkman  and  Motley  paint  with  inspired 
brush  the  picture  of  the  storied  past.  He  hears  again 
the  voices  of  Demosthenes  and  Cicero,  and  Mirabeau 
and  Fox,  and  Webster  and  Clay,  the  great  orators 
who  swayed  men's  hearts  in  ages  past.  For  him,  Hugo 
and  Thackeray  and  Dickens,  and  Lowell  and  Emer- 
son and  Hawthorne,  and  all  the  great  authors  of  the 
world,  have  a  special  message.  His  friends,  too,  are 
the  artists  and  sculptors  who  have  made  canvas  and 
marble  to  live  and  breathe  through  all  the  countless 
centuries  —  Phidias  and  Michelangelo  and  Donatello 
keeping  coble  company  with  Rubens  and  Rembrandt, 
and  Van  Dyke  and  Titian  and  Raphael.  He  listens  to 
symphonies  clear  and  sweet,  silvery  notes  sounded 
upon  the  harp  of  life  by  the  master  hands  of  Mozart 
and  Beethoven,  and  Bach  and  Schubert  and  Wagner, 
the  mighty  musicians  whose  majestic  melodies  still 
linger  in  human  ears.  To  him  Science  opens  her  won- 
derful storehouse,  and  discloses  the  achievements  of 
Bacon  and  Newton  and  Laplace,  and  Darwin  and 
Huxley  and  Pasteur,  and  Koch  and  Thomson  and 
Edison,  the  giant  minds  who  have  looked  deep  into 
the  soul  of  things  with  the  inspired  intellect  of  human 
genius. 

Last,  but  greatest  of  all  sources  of  enjoyment  to  the 
educated  man,  there  is  the  wonderful  world  of  nature 
about  him,  whose  mysteries  he  learns  to  read  until  he 
knows  the  hidden  secret  of  flowers  and  trees,  of  birds 
and  animals,  the  movement  of  the  planets,  and  the 
solemn  march  of  the  stars.  Then,  like  the  banished 
duke  in  the  forest  of  Arden,  he  who  has  been  trained 
to  understand  the  wonderful  works  of  nature :  — 


PUBLIC   EDUCATION  «l 

'^  Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brooks, 
Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything." 

60.  Third  Purpose  of  Education — Training  for 
Citizenship.  Power  to  earn  a  living  and  power 
to  enjoy  life :  these  are  two  reasons  for  public  educa- 
tion. To  them  must  be  added  a  third,  of  es-  ^    , 

.   ,  .  .  ,.,  ,  Popular 

pecial  importance  in  a  country  like  ours  where  Bovenunent 
the  people  govern  themselves :  that  is,  training  upon 
for  citizenship.  The  revolutions  so  frequent 
in  the  countries  of  Central  and  South  America  teach 
us  the  dangers  from  ignorant  citizens.  Popular  gov- 
ernment can  succeed  only  when  voters  are  intelligent 
enough  to  think  for  themselves,  to  know  for  what  they 
are  voting.  Knowledge  means  power  to  see  what  is 
good  for  the  city,  the  State,  and  the  nation.  History 
and  civics,  language  and  literature  and  mathematics,  — 
all  the  studies  of  the  public  schools  broaden  the  indi- 
vidual, and  develop  an  all-round  manhood  and  woman- 
hood. Thus  the  public  schools  prepare  boys  and  girls 
to  do  well  their  future  part  as  citizens  of  our  great 
Republic. 

61.  Education  in  Charge  of  State  and  Local  Gov- 
ernments. In  our  country,  control  of  education  is  in 
charge  of  the  individual  States,  instead  of  the  na- 
tional government.  The  States  have  in  turn  placed 
this  duty  largely  in  the  hands  of  local  communities  -^ 
the  school-district,  township,  city,  and  county. 

62.  The  District  School  System.  Our  common 
school  system  dates  from  colonial  days,  when  Massachu- 
setts provided  that  in  every  town  of  fifty  inhabitants 
there  should  be  an  elementary  school.  As  population 
moved  westward,  a  similar  district  system  was  estab- 


eS  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

lished  in  other  States ;  for  the  people  of  each  locality 
naturally  desired  a  school  close  at  hand  for  the  educa- 
tion of  their  children.  So  the  western  pioneers  built 
the  little  red  schoolhouse  which  has  played  so  promi- 
nent a  part  in  our  national  history.  As  you  travel 
through  our  country  to-day,  you  will  find  a  school- 
house  every  two  or  three  miles,  each  the  center  of  a 
small  school  district. 

The  control  of  the  district  school  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  board  of  trustees,  generally  three  or  five  in  num- 
oharacteris-  ^^^9  ^^^  employ  a  teacher,  levy  the  school 
?i*'l.?.^*     tax,  and  look  after  school  affairs.  The  num- 

alstrict  ^ 

sciiooi  ber  of  pupils  is  small  in  most  districts;  and 
usually  one  teacher  instructs  all  classes  in  the  same 
room.  If  you  have  not  attended  such  a  school,  per- 
haps your  father  or  mother  has  done  so,  and  can  tell 
you  all  about  it.  If  you  live  in  the  city,  you  may 
have  more  educational  advantages  than  country  child- 
ren ;  but  many  of  our  greatest  men  were  educated 
in  the  district  school,  and  it  has  been  one  of  the  chief 
factors  in  our  national  progress. 

63.  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  the  District 
System.  The  great  merit  of  the  district  school  system 
centrauaa-  ^s,  that  it  placcs  elementary  education  easily 
^°^  within  reach  of  all.   Its    drawback  is  that 

pupils  of  all  ages  and  stages  of  advancement  are 
taught  by  a  single  teacher,  who  can  give  only  a 
small  amount  of  time  to  each  class.  To  overcome  this 
disadvantage,  all  the  district  schools  of  the  township 
are  sometimes  consolidated  in  one  centrally  located 
building,  with  several  teachers.  ^  By  this  plan  pupils 

*  In  six  States  the  district  system  has  been  abolished  in  favor  of  tic 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  63 

can  be  graded,  and  the  different  classes  placed  in 
separate  rooms.  Moreover,  with  the  expenditure  of 
less  money,  better  paid  and  more  efficient  teachers 
can  be  employed.  Township  or  "  union  "  high  schools 
are  also  established  on  this  plan,  since  it  is  impos- 
sible for  each  small  district  to  support  a  separate  high 
school. 

The  disadvantage  of  consolidating  rural  schools  is 
the  distance  which  pupils  must  travel  to  reach  the 
centralized  school.  This  difficulty  has  been  Transporta- 
met  in  many  communities  by  providing  a  ^^onofpnpiis 
stage  which  transports  pupils  to  and  from  school. 

In  order  to  keep  the  rural  schools  up  to  a  certain 
standard   of  excellence,  the  voters  of  each  Q^^^y^  g^. 
county  generally  elect  a  county  superintend-  P«rvision 
ent,  who   supervises  all  the   district  and  township 
schools  within  his  county. 

64.  Administration  of  City  Schools.  Each  city  or- 
dinarily constitutes  a  separate  school  district,  with  its 
own  board  of  education  chosen  by  the  voters.  Board  oi 
The  city  board  of  education  employs  teach-  •*'^«**i°^ 
ers,  purchases  school  sites,  erects  and  maintains  build- 
ings, and  sometimes  furnishes  all  the  textbooks  and 
other  supplies  used  by  the  pupils.  Members  of  city 
school  boards  generally  receive  no  pay  for  their  serv- 
ices, but  the  office  is  a  most  important  one.  The 
efficiency  of  the  schools  in  any  city  depends  in  large 
measure  upon  the  men  who  compose  the  board  of 
education ;  for  they  have  control  of  the  schools,  and 
expend  the  large  sums  of  money  necessary  for  their 

township  system  ;  and  in  at  least  twenty  others  this  action  may  be 
taken  if  the  voters  desire. 


e4.  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

support.  In  order  to  keep  the  management  of  schools 
out  of  polities,  members  of  the  board  of  education 
are  often  elected  on  nonpartisan  tickets.  The  import- 
ant question  is  not  whether  a  board  member  is  a 
Democrat  or  a  Republican,  but  whether  he  is  broad- 
minded,  honest,  and  capable. 

The  board  of  education  employs  a  superintendent 
superin-  whose  busincss  it  is  to  supervise  the  work 
tdndeat  q£  ^^^q  schools,  appoint  teachers,  recommend 
textbooks,  prepare  courses  of  study,  and  devise  plans 
for  improving  the  school  system. 

Each  city  school  building  ordinarily  contains  from 
eight  to  twenty-four  rooms ;  classes  are  graded  from 
Work  oi  oity  ^^^  primary  room  through  the  eighth  grade, 
schools  eacii  having  its  own  teacher;  kindergartens 
are  commonly  provided  for  children  four  and  five 
years  of  age ;  special  instructors  supervise  the  work 
in  manual  training,  domestic  science,  sewing,  draw- 
ing, music,  physical  training,  and  penmanship  ;  play- 
grounds are  equipped  in  connection  with  each  build- 
ing; special  classes  are  provided  for  children  who 
are  backward  or  mentally  defective ;  medical  inspect- 
ors are  sometimes  employed  to  guard  against  conta- 
gious disease,  and  to  raise  the  physical  standard  of 
pupils ;  open-air  schools  are  maintained  for  children 
who  have  tuberculosis ;  night  classes  are  conducted 
for  employed  persons  who  cannot  attend  day  schools, 
—  these  are  some  of  the  educational  functions  of 
progressive  city  school  systems.  Recently  many  cities 
have  adopted  the  Junior  High  School  plan,  under 
which  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades  are  or- 
ganized as  separate  schools. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  65 

65.  City  High  Schools.  In  addition  to  a  number  of 
elementary  schools,  each  city  maintains  one  or  more 
high  schools.  These  are  housed  in  splendid  buildings, 
which  cost  from  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  in 
smaller  cities  to  nearly  one  million  dollars  in  the  larger 
ones.  The  modern  high  school  has  been  called  the 
"people's  college";  and  the  work  of  these  schools 
to-day  is  more  than  equivalent  to  that  of  the  colleges 
forty  years  ago.  Most  high  schools  offer  several 
courses  of  study,  from  which  the  pupil  may  choose 
the  one  which  he  wishes  to  follow ;  as,  the  manual 
training  course,  the  commercial  course,  the  college 
preparatory  course,  and  many  others.  Well-equipped 
laboratories  are  provided  for  work  in  chemistry,  phys- 
ics, physiology,  and  other  sciences ;  and  some  high 
schools  have  a  splendid  equipment  for  work  in  man- 
ual training,  domestic  science  and  art,  and  other 
practical  subjects  which  are  beginning  to  receive  the 
attention  they  deserve. 

Fortunate  is  the  pupil  who  has  such  opportunities 
within  his  reach ;  yet  thousands  of  children  fail  to 
take  advantage  of  them.  Only  a  small  proportion  of 
all  the  pupils  in  our  public  schools  enter  the  high 
schools;  but  this  number  includes  the  boys  and 
girls  who  will  be  best  fitted  to  make  their  way  in  the 
world,  and  who  will  do  most  for  themselves,  their  city, 
and  the  Republic. 

66.  Public  Libraries.  Close  allies  and  friends  of  the 
schools  are  the  public  libraries  maintained  in  almost 
every  city  of  the  United  States.  Here  boys  and  girls 
may  obtain  books  on  any  subject  about  which  they 
wish  to  learn.  Contrast  your  opportunities  in  this  re- 


ee  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

spect  with  those  of  Lincoln,  who  walked  many  miles 
to  borrow  the  book  which  he  read  by  firelight  after 
his  hard  day's  toil.  Are  you  as  anxious  to  improve 
your  mind  as  Lincoln  was  to  improve  his  ? 

67.  The  State  Educational  Department.  In  most 
commonwealths  there  is  a  State  superintendent  or 
state  super-  Commissioner  of  schools,  commonly  elected 
intendent  ]^j  ^j^g  ^^^^^^  of  ^l^^  State.  This  officer  col- 
lects statistics,  inspects  school  systems,  reports  to  the 
legislature  concerning  the  needs  of  the  schools,  and 
in  general  looks  after  the  educational  interests  of  the 
entire  State. 

In  some  commonwealths  there  is  a  State  board  of 
state  board  education  with  important  duties,  such  as 
of  education  preparing  CO iirses  of  study,  examining  teach- 
ers, and  sometimes  selecting  uniform  textbooks  for 
use  throughout  the  State. 

68.  Compulsory  Education  Laws.  We  have  seen 
that,  in  our  country,  education  is  considered  not  only 
a  privilege  but  a  duty.  Nearly  all  the  States  have  com- 
pulsory education  laws.  These  commonly  require  all 
children  from  eight  to  fourteen,  or  from  eight  to  six- 
teen years  of  age,  to  attend  school.  The  employment 
of  children  under  fourteen  or  sixteen  years  is  gener- 
ally prohibited ;  and  a  fine  may  be  imposed  upon  par- 
ients  or  employers  who  do  not  observe  this  law.  The 
object  of  compulsory  education  is  to  protect  the  State 
from  ignorance  by  assuring  each  child  at  least  the 
elements  of  an  education.  Hence  the  boy  who  "plays 
truant "  is  not  only  violating  the  law  of  the  State,  but 
he  is  placing  himself  in  the  foolish  position  of  one 
who  steals  from  himself. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  6? 

69.  State  Universities.  In  addition  to  the  many 
private  colleges  and  universities  throughout  the 
Union,  forty  commonwealths  maintain  State  univer- 
sities which  students  may  enter  upon  completion  of 
their  hio^h  school  course.^  The  State  universities  offer 
a  wide  variety  of  courses,  in  order  to  fit  students  for 
many  different  pursuits  —  for  business  life,  teaching, 
law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  engineering,  forestry,  and 
agriculture.  They  are  open  to  both  sexes,  and  tuition 
is  usually  free  to  all  residents  of  the  State. 

These  institutions  aim  to  make  their  work  practical, 
directly  related  to  the  life  of  the  people  of  the  State. 
They  seek  to  improve  agricultural  methods,  to  practical 
advance  manufacturing  interests,  to  raise  the  <^^"*°*" 
standard  of  education  and  health  among  the  people; 
in  short,  to  do  all  that  can  be  done  by  an  educational 
institution  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  State. 

70.  The  Cost  of  Public  Education.  Many  commun- 
ities spend  almost  as  much  on  their  public  schools  as 
for  all  other  local  purposes  combined.  Our  public 
schools  are  maintained  at  an  annual  cost  of  nearly 
$800,000,000.  About  eighty  per  cent  of  this  im- 
mense sum  is  raised  by  taxation.  You  may  judge 
what  a  high  value  the  American  people  place  upon 
education,  since  they  are  willing  to  tax  themselves  so 
freely  in  order  that  you  may  have  the  best  education 
which  money  can  provide. 

71.  The  National  Government  and  Education.  We 
have  seen  that  education  is  primarily  in  the  hands  of 
the  individual   States,   which   delegate  this  work  to 

^  The  forty  State  universities  enroll  about  one  third  of  the  entire 
number  of  university  students.  Six  of  the  ten  largest  universities  ia 
this  country  are  State  institutions. 


68  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

local  communities ;  but  the  national  government  has 
given  valuable  assistance.  By  a  law  passed  in 
jorMgiier  1862,  Congicss  provided  that  each  State 
should  receive  30,000  acres  of  public  land  for 
each  Representative  and  Senator  in  Congress,  the 
proceeds  to  be  used  for  the  support  of  agricultural 
and  mechanical  colleges.  In  addition  to  this  gift,  the 
national  government  makes  an  annual  appropriation 
for  each  State  agricultural  college. 

For  the  support  of  the  common  or  elementary 
schools,  Congress  has  likewise  made  substantial  gifts. 
Grants  for  ^^gi^^^^^g  wi^^i  C)hio  in  1802^  each  State  ad- 
eiementary  mittcd  received  one  section  of  land  in  every 
township  for  the  support  of  its  common 
schools ;  and  each  State  admitted  after  1848  received 
two  sections.  The  income  from  the  sale  of  these  lands 
is  apportioned  each  year  upon  the  basis  of  the  num- 
ber of  children  of  school  age  within  each  township. 

In  1917  Congress  passed  the  Smith-Hughes  Act, 
which  provides  federal  aid  for  vocational  education. 
Each  State  accepting  its  provisions  must  es- 
Hughes  tablish  a  State  board  of  control  of  day-indus- 
trial, evening,  part-time,  continuation,  and 
agricultural  and  home-making  schools.  Each  State 
must  also  agree  to  appropriate,  either  through  the 
State  or  locally,  an  amount  of  money  equivalent  to 
the  sum  received  from  the  federal  government.  The 
amounts  appropriated  under  this  act  are  to  be  in- 
creased each  year  until  1925,  when  the  States  will 
receive  $7,000,000  from  the  national  treasury  in 
support  of  vocational  education. 

The  national  government  maintains  at  Washington 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  69 

a  bureau  of  education,  in  charge  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education.  This  officer  col-  Bureau  of 
lects  statistics  and  other  information  con-  Education 
cerning  pubUc  and  private  schools  throughout  the 
Union,  publishes  valuable  reports  on  educational  top- 
ics, and  informs  school  officials  concerning  important 
work  which  is  being  undertaken  in  various  communi- 
ties. Thus  the  Commissioner  and  his  Bureau  promote 
the  educational  interests  of  the  entire  nation. 

The  national  government  has  charge  of  the  city 
schools  of  Washington,  D.  C. ;  provides  schools  for 
the  Indians ;  and  supports  the  academies  at  Annapolis 
and  West  Point. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  are  the  boundaries  of  the  school  district  in  which  you 
live  ?  How  many  children  of  school  age  within  this  district  ? 
How  many  are  enrolled  in  the  public  schools  ? 

2.  How  many  members  comprise  your  board  of  education  or 
school  trustees  ?  How  are  they  chosen  ?  What  is  their  term 
of  office  ?  Name  the  members. 

3.  What  amount  of  school  revenue  is  derived  from  local  taxation 
in  your  district  ?  What  is  the  rate  of  the  local  tax  for  school 
purposes  ? 

4.  Is  there  a  law  in  your  State  compelling  children  of  a  certain 
age  to  attend  school  ?  If  so,  during  what  ages  is  such  attend- 
ance required,  and  for  what  term  each  year  ?  What  is  the 
penalty  for  the  violation  of  this  law,  and  upon  whom  imposed  ? 
Who  enforces  the  compulsory  education  laws  ? 

5.  Explain  the  importance  of  public  education  in  a  democracy. 

6.  What  obligations  do  pupils  owe  to  their  school  ?  Do  they  owe 
any  obligation  to  the  community  which  provides  them  with 
free  public  education  ? 

7.  Is  there  county  supervision  of  rural  schools  in  your  commun- 
ity ?  How  is  the  county  superintendent  chosen  ?  How  are 
schools  supervised  in  your  district  ? 


CHAPTER   VII 

PUBLIC    CHARITIES 

^2.  The  Relation  of  Government  to  Charity.  In 
every  community  there  are  certain  members  of  society 
who  are  unable  or  unwilling  to  provide  for 
and  depend-  themselvcs.  Thcsc  pcrsons  may  be  grouped 
in  two  classes :  (1)  the  defectives,  or  those 
suffering  from  a  serious  physical  or  mental  disability 
which  incapacitates  them  from  work,  as  the  insane, 
the  blind,  the  crippled,  and  the  hopelessly  diseased ; 
(2)  the  dependent  class,  including  those  who  through 
poverty  are  a  burden  on  the  community. 

For  its  own  protection,  as  well  as  from  humanita- 
rian motives,  society  must  make  provision  for  both 
the  defective  and  the  dependent  classes.  In 

Public  and  .  .  .  ^ 

private  earlier  times,  the  relief  of  the  destitute  and 
helpless  members  of  society  was  left  to  the 
church  and  to  private  charity.  These  agencies  still 
cooperate  in  the  work  of  charity,  especially  in  caring 
for  the  sick  and  the  destitute;  but  at  the  present 
time,  government  bears  a  large  part^of  the  burden  of 
charities,  including  poor  relief,  and  the  care  of  the 
insane,  the  blind,  deaf-mutes,  and  other  defectives. 

The  State  and  local  governments  cooperate  in  pro- 
Work  of  viding  relief  for  these  unfortunate  persons. 
foMUo^v-  Poor  relief  is  given  by  the  local  community, 
emments  ^]^g  township,  city,  or  county ;  but  so  great 
is  the  expense  of   caring  for  the  insane  and  other 


PUBLIC  CHARITIES  71 

defectives  that  this  duty  is  generally  performed  by 
the  State  government.  Accordingly,  each  State  main- 
tains numerous  large  asylums  and  homes,  to  which 
defective  persons  are  brought  from  all  parts  of  the 
commonwealth. 

73.  Care  of  the  Defective  Class.  Insane  persons  are 
^metimes  cared  for  in  local  poorhouses;  but  the 
more  pro2:ressive  States  provide  separate  asy- 

^.^.-  ^       .  ^  y     The  Insane 

lums  or  hospitals,  where  patients  may  receive 
humane  treatment  and  the  best  medical  care.  In 
order  to  prevent  the  confinement  of  persons  who  are 
not  actually  insane,  the  question  of  insanity  must  be 
passed  upon  by  expert  physicians,  generally  acting 
under  the  direction  of  the  probate  judge  of  the 
county. 

Feeble-minded  children  are  sometimes  cared  for 
in  State  schools.   Here  they  are  trained  to 

•^  ^  Feeble - 

become  at  least  partly  self-supporting;  and  minded 
they  often  do  a  large  part  of  the  work  on 
farms  maintained  in  connection  with  these  schools. 

The  blind  and  the  deaf-mutes  are  commonly  edu- 
cated and  cared  for  in  State  institutions.  Special 
methods  of  instruction  enable  them  to  over- 

TheWlnd 

come,  in  part,  the  terrible  handicap  resulting  and  the 
from  their  physical  disability;  so  that  they 
often  become  useful  and  self-supporting  members  of 
society.  You  may  have  read  of  the  wonderful  attain- 
ments of  Helen  Keller,  who,  although  both  blind  and 
deaf,  has  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  college  education. 
Her  splendid  perseverance  shows  how  nobility  of  soul 
and  heroic  courage  can  triumph  over  physical  infirm* 
ities. 


W  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

74.  Care  of  the  Dependent  Class.  We  come  now 
to  the  dependent  class  —  those  who  through  poverty 
The  vagrant  are  a  burden  on  society.  This  poverty  may 
'°°'  be  due  to  misfortune  :  hard-working  men  are 

sometimes  thrown  out  of  work,  and  need  temporary 
relief.  More  often  it  is  due  to  disease,  or  drunken- 
ness, or  shiftless  habits,  and  a  desire  to  live  at  the 
expense  of  the  community.  The  tramp  who  comes  to 
your  door  asking  for  food  or  money,  as  well  as  his 
companion,  the  street  beggar,  generally  belongs  to 
this  class.  To  give  the  relief  asked  for,  without  in- 
vestigating to  find  out  whether  it  is  deserved,  merely 
encourages  these  vagrants  in  their  shiftlessness.  In 
many  cities  there  are  charity  organization  societies, 
which  investigate  persons  who  ask  for  relief,  and 
provide  employment  for  those  who  are  able  and  will- 
ing to  work.  But  most  tramps  and  beggars  do  not 
want  work ;  they  prefer  to  live  at  the  expense  of  the 
kind-hearted  but  foolish  persons  who  encourage  them 
by  indiscriminate  almsgiving. 

But  there  are  other  cases  of  actual  destitution 
which  society  must  relieve.  For  this  reason  there  is 
in  nearly  every  county  an  almshouse  or  poor- 
house  or  farm,  which  is  maintained  by  the  local  gov- 
ernment. Here  those  who  cannot  provide  for 
themselves  are  supported  at  public  expense.  Some- 
times the  inmates  are  able  to  do  considerable  farm 
work;  but  more  often  they  are  so  crippled  or  infirm 
or  shiftless  that  the  community  bears  the  entire 
burden  of  their  support.^ 

^  It  is  estimated  that  nearly  one  half  of  the  inmates  of  almshousea 
in  the  United  States  eould  work  if  compelled  to  do  so. 


PUBLIC  CHARITIES  78 

The  local  overseers  of  the  poor  sometimes  supply 
provisions,  fuel,  and  clothing  for  families  who  are 
temporarily  in  need  of  assistance.  This  is  outdoor 
called  outdoor  relief,  because  it  is  granted  to  ""®* 
destitute  persons  in  their  homes,  without  sending 
them  to  the  almshouse.  The  great  danger  of  outdoor 
relief  is  that  shiftless  persons  soon  form  the  habit  of 
looking  to  government  for  help,  instead  of  helping 
themselves.  For  this  reason,  outdoor  relief  is  gener- 
ally left  to  private  charitable  organizations,  which  are 
better  able  to  investigate  each  case,  and  determine 
whether  aid  should  be  granted. 

Many  of  our  cities  and  counties  maintain  public 
institutions  for  homeless  children.  Here  these  little 
ones,  who  have  never  known  what  it  means  children's 
to  have  a  comfortable  home  and  kind  par-  ^°™" 
ents,  are  trained  and  educated  at  public  expense  in 
order  that  they  may  become  useful  citizens. 

75.  Care  of  the  Sick  Poor.  Each  local  community 
ordinarily  employs  one  or  more  physicians  to  care  for 
persons  who  are  too  poor  to  employ  medical 

aid.  Public  dispensaries  are  also  provided  anddispen- 
where  the  needy  poor  can  obtain  free  medi- 
cal treatment.  More  serious  cases  of  illness  or  injury 
are  cared  for  in  public  hospitals,  maintained  by  the 
city  or  county;  here  those  unable  to  pay  receive  free 
care  and  treatment. 

76.  Cost  of  Charities.  The  cost  of  public  and  private 
charities  in  the  United  States  is  enormous,  amount- 
ing to  over  two  hundred  million  dollars  each  year,  or 
one  third  the  cost  of  our  public  schools.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  three  million  persons,  or  one  thirtieth  of 


74  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

the  entire  population  of  the  country,  receive  some  form 
of  public  or  private  relief.  All  of  this  expense  must  be 
borne  by  the  productive  members  of  society ;  this  is  why 
it  is  so  important  to  investigate  every  request  for  aid, 
and  grant  relief  only  to  those  who  deserve  it. 

77.  Charity  Organization.  In  nearly  every  large  city, 
there  are  charity  organization  societies,  private  organi- 
zations which  aim  to  secure  cooperation  among  the 
various  relief  agencies  of  the  city.  These  societies 
expose  impostors,  of  whom  there  are  many ;  refer  ap- 
plicants for  relief  to  the  charitable  organization  which 
can  best  provide  it;  find  employment  for  those  who 
are  able  and  willing  to  work;  and  endeavor  to  ascer- 
tain and  remove  the  causes  of  poverty,  instead  of 
merely  relieving  temporary  needs. 


QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  provision  is  made  in  your  State  for  the  defective  claasee, 
the  deaf,  blind,  insane,  feeble-minded  ? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  institutions  and  associations  in  your  com- 
munity for  the  care  of  the  poor.  Which  of  these  are  public 
and  which  private  ? 

3.  Where  is  your  almshouse  located?  Is  any  attempt  made  to 
separate  the  different  classes  of  inmates?  Is  it  well  managed  ? 

4.  How  are  the  vagrant  poor  or  tramps  dealt  with  in  your  com- 
munity ? 

5.  If  a  street  beggar  should  ask  you  for  money,  would  you  give 
him  any  ?  What  are  the  arguments  against  promiscuous  alms- 
giving? 

6.  How  are  dependent  children  cared  for  In  your  community  ?  Is 
the  plan  a  satisfactory  one  ? 

7.  Does  your  community  employ  physicians  to  care  for  those  too 
poor  to  afford  them  ?  Is  there  a  free  dispensary  in  your  com- 
munity ? 

8.  Enumerate  some  of  the  principal  causes  of  poverty.  Ask  local 
officials  what  causes  are  chiefly  responsible  for  pauperism  in 
vour  community. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

GOVERNMENT   AND    INDUSTRY 

78.  The  Production  of  Wealth.  In  future  years 
you  will  probably  realize  more  fully  than  you  do  at 
present  that  most  of  the  activities  of  men  are  Economic 
caused  by  the  need  of  making  a  living.  In  acuvities 
this  respect  we  are  not  so  far  removed  from  the  prim- 
itive man  who  spent  most  of  his  time  in  obtaining; 
food  with  which  to  sustain  life.  On  all  sides  we  see 
men  engaged  in  hundreds  of  different  callings,  in 
banks  and  offices  and  stores,  in  field  and  mine  and 
workshop.  All  are  producers,  for  all  are  performing 
services  which  have  an  exchangeable  value.  All  are 
engaged  in  the  creation  of  wealth ;  that  is,  the  pro- 
duction of  goods  which  have  an  economic  value,  which 
are  desired  by  society.  The  farmer  says :  "  I  will  till 
the  soil,  raise  the  wheat  needed  to  supply  the  markets 
of  the  world,  and  exchange  it  for  the  clothing,  furni- 
ture, implements,  and  other  articles  that  I  need."  The 
manufacturer  produces  clothing,  shoes,  or  furniture, 
which  in  turn  he  exchanges  for  the  food  products 
and  other  commodities  necessary  to  his  existence  and 
comfort.  The  merchant  creates  values  by  exchanging 
goods ;  if  it  were  not  for  him,  the  farmer  would  have 
to  leave  his  work,  and  go  to  the  manufacturer  and  the 
clothier,  for  the  necessaries  which  they  produce.  The 
day  laborer  receives,  in  return  for  his  labor,  food  from 


76  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

the  farmer,  shoes  and  clothing  from  the  factory,  and 
fuel  from  the  mine. 

79.  How  Government  aids  Industry.  Thus  all  the 
members  of  modern  industrial  society  are  dependent 
Services  oi  upou  cach  other  for  their  daily  needs,  and  all 
g^veni-°"^  are  working  in  cooperation  for  the  common 
ment  good.  All  are  engaged  in  the  world's  great 

workshop  which  we  call  industry;  and  the  most  im- 
portant services  which  government  performs  are  those 
which  relate  to  industry,  to  the  activities  of  men  in 
making  a  living.  For  example,  the  national  govern- 
ment provides  the  circulating  medium  or  money  for 
which  men  exchange  their  services ;  and  our  national 
government  likewise  carries  the  mails,  makes  river  and 
harbor  improvements,  protects  commerce  by  means 
of  lighthouses  and  life-saving  stations,  sends  consuls 
abroad  to  promote  our  trade  with  foreign  countries, 
and  grants  copyrights  and  patents  to  encourage  au- 
thors and  inventors. 

Our  State  and  local  governments  also  perform  many 

services  in  aid  of  industry.  They  build  the  roads  and 

brido^es  necessary  for  the  transportation  of 

Services  of  ^  ^  .-^  i   •      •  i  1 

State  gov-  people  and  products;  and  it  is  to  them  that 
we  look  for  the  protection  of  property  and 
contract  rights,  for  educational  facilities,  and  for  the 
restriction  of  industries  which,  like  the  liquor  traffic, 
threaten  the  public  welfare. 

Both  State  and  national  governments  aid  industry 
by  protecting  the  natural  resources  of  the  country  in 
lands  and  forests ;  by  legislation  designed  to  safe- 
guard the  lives  and  health  of  laborers  in  mines  and 
factories;  and  by  laws  which  regulate  corporations, 


A  PLANTING   MACHINE  AT   WORK 

On  the  farms  of  the  experiment  station  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  Observe  that  each  plot 
of  ground  is  labeled  to  show  the  source  of  the  seed  used.  Tlie  investigations  made  at  such 
stations  serve  the  combined  purpose  of  adapting  methods  to  local  conditions,  and  of  stimu- 
lating the  farmers  of  the  surrounding  country  to  introduce  the  best  seeds,  and  new  methods 
of  tillage  and  the  care  of  crops.  The  agricultural  colleges  of  many  States  maintain  stations 
of  this  sort. 


^^IM 

H 

"M  ' 

-<  .  f 

1 

h 

^  '■ 

■  1 

1 

M 

^   f         :    ' 

"« 

\^ 

1 

f 

1 

4 

'* 

m 

n* 

THE  DAIRY  CAR  OF  THE   "BETTER  FARMING   SPECIAL' 


The  "  Better  Farming  Special  "  is  a  train  equipped  by  the  Boston  and  Albany  Railroad  with  the 
cooperation  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College.  At  appropriate  seasons  it  is  sent 
through  the  agricultural  districts  of  the  State,  and  lecturers  address  the  farmers.  There  are 
several  cars  in  the  train,  devoted  to  crops,  forestry,  and  other  agricultural  interests.  In 
many  States  similar  traveling  exhibits  are  sent  out  each  year  by  the  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 


AN  EARLY  ATTEMPT  AT  IRRIGATION 

Before  the  National  Government  took  up  this  work,  methods  were  crude  and  results 
imsatisfactory. 


Courtesy,  Department  of  Agriculture. 
PRESENT  METHODS  OF  IRRIGATION 


GOVERNMENT  AND  INDUSTRY  77 

the  capitalistic  organizations  which  to-day  control  the 
larger  part  of  our  manufactures  and  commerce. 

80.  Why  Government  aids  Agricultixre.  The  boys 
■who  live  on  our  farms  have  at  least  one  advantage 
over  city  boys  —  each  year  they  have  a  com-rais- 
chance  to  win  a  trip  to  Washington  at  the  ^«  contest 
expense  of  Uncle  Sam.  They  may  win  this  prize  by 
raising  more  corn  on  an  acre  of  land  than  is  raised 
by  the  other  boys  who  compete  in  the  annual  corn- 
raising  contest  carried  on  by  our  national  govern- 
ment. The  successful  boys  also  have  the  distinction 
of  seeing  their  names  published  in  the  list  of  youth- 
ful farmers  who  have  raised  a  larger  corn  crop  than 
that  secured  by  other  boys,  —  often  larger,  indeed, 
than  their  own  fathers  can  raise. 

Why  does  our  national  government  encourage  this 
competition  in  corn-raising?  The  fathers  of  these 
boys  now  raise  more  corn  and  more  wheat  than 
any  other  farmers  in  the  world;  so  that  the  of  scientific 
United  States  holds  first  place  as  an  agricul-  **^  ** 
tural  country,  producing  the  largest  part  of  the  world's 
supply  of  breadstuffs,  meat  products,  raw  cotton, 
lumber,  and  Indian  corn.  But  among  the  49,000,000 
people  who  comprise  our  rural  population,  there  are 
many  farmers  who  are  ignorant  of  the  best  methods 
of  production.  These  men  do  not  sow  the  best  seed, 
or  cultivate  their  fields  properly ;  perhaps  they  do  not 
appreciate  the  necessity  of  rotating  crops  and  apply- 
ing fertilizers  to  the  soil,  in  order  to  secure  the  largest 
returns.  Hence  our  national  and  State  governments 
endeavor  in  every  possible  way  to  educate  farmers 
and  their  sons  in  scientific  methods  of  agriculture.  In 


78  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

other  words,  we  cannot  afford  to  rely  solely  on  our 
fertile  soil  and  broad  valleys  in  order  to  retain  our 
rank  as  the  foremost  agricultural  country  in  the  world. 
We  must  have  men  trained  to  make  the  most  of  these 
natural  advantages  by  adding  to  them  intelligent  labor 
and  intelliofent  methods. 

8i.  How  Government  promotes  Better  Farming. 
This  corn-raising  contest  is  only  one  of  the  many 
Agricuitnr-  nieans  by  which  government  encourages 
ment's^ta-  better  agricultural  methods.  In  nearly  every 
*^»  State  there  is  an  experiment  station,  generally 

connected  with  the  State's  agricultural  college,  which 
carries  on  experiments  in  order  to  determine  which 
crops  and  methods  of  cultivation  are  best  for  the 
farmers  of  each  locality.  At  these  stations,  new  vari- 
eties of  cereals  are  originated,  and  old  ones  improved; 
model  farms  are  maintained,  which  furnish  instruct- 
ive examples  to  the  farmers  of  the  State,  and  serve 
as  laboratories  for  the  education  of  thousands  of 
young  men  in  scientific  agriculture. 

By  means  of  bulletins  and  reports  sent  out  to  the 
farmers  of  the  State,  these  institutions  render  a  still 
broader  service;  for  example,  Wisconsin's 
aiexten-  high  rank  as  a  dairying  State  is  due  largely 
sonwor  ^^  the  enterprise  of  the  agricultural  depart- 
ment of  her  State  University.  For  those  who  desire 
information  on  farm  problems,  but  who  are  unable 
to  leave  their  work,  Cornell  and  several  other  uni- 
versities carry  on  reading  courses  for  farmers  and 
their  wives.  Practical  lessons  are  published  each 
month ;  questions  are  answered  by  mail,  and  individ- 
ual instruction  and  advice  given. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  INDUSTRY  7« 

Some  agricultural  colleges  send  out  special  trains, 
known  as  "  better  farming  specials,"  one  car  being 
devoted   to  a  dairyino^  exhibit,  another    to 

•^       o  7  BettM* 

crops,  another  to  forestry,  and  so  on.  These  fanning 
trains  are  sent  through  the  agricultural  dis- 
tricts, and  expert  practical  farmers  are  employed  to 
accompany  them  and  give  lectures. 

82.  Irrigation  Work  of  the  National  Govemment. 
Irrigation  is  another  important  aid  to  agriculture, 
especially  in  the  arid  lands  of  the  West  and  Raciaiming 
Southwest.  By  the  construction  of  irrigation  "**i*^*<^ 
dams  and  reservoirs,  the  federal  government  has  trans- 
formed millions  of  acres  of  desert  land  into  fertile 
farms.  These  lands  are  sold  to  settlers  upon  small 
annual  payments  which  will  ultimately  cover  the  cost 
of  constructing  the  irrigation  works.  Within  the  last 
twenty  years,  the  amount  of  land  irrigated  in  the 
United  States  has  been  increased  from  three  million 
to  more  than  thirteen  million  acres.  These  great  irri- 
gation projects  have  cost  over  $110,000,000,  but  this 
cost  is  small  in  comparison  with  the  values  created 
by  transforming  desert  wastes  into  fertile  farms. 

83.  The  Destruction  of  Our  Forests.  In  your  study 
of  American  history,  you  have  learned  that  our 
country  was  originally  covered  with  vast  forests. 
From  the  valuable  storehouse  thus  provided  by  na- 
ture, the  settlers  drew  materials  for  houses,  schools, 
churches,  ships,  furniture,  and  fuel.  Unfortunately, 
the  descendants  of  those  settlers  have  acted  as  if  the 
storehouse  could  never  be  exhausted.  Our  great 
forest  areas  were  ruthlessly  stripped  of  trees  by 
owners  who  cared  only  to  make  money  as  fast  as 


80  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

possible.  Young  trees  which  should  have  been  spared 
were  taken  for  telegraph  poles  or  railroad  ties,  and 
no  effort  was  made  to  replace  them  by  planting. 
Terrible  forest  fires  which  swept  away  millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  valuable  timber  continued  the  work 
of  destruction. 

84.  The  Establishment  of  Forest  Reserves.  At 
last  we  beo^an  to  realize  that  the  destruction  of  our 
forests  meant  even  more  than  the  loss  of  our  timber 
supply.  The  fertility  and  productiveness  of  our  farms 
were  seriously  threatened,  for  forests  preserve  the  rain- 
fall and  make  it  regular.  They  also  protect  the  head- 
waters of  our  great  rivers,  thus  securing  a  uniform 
flow  throughout  the  year,  and  providing  water  for 
irrigation  and  for  carrying  lumber  and  other  produce 
to  market.  Finally,  in  1908,  President  Roosevelt  in- 
vited the  governors  of  all  the  States  and  territories 
to  meet  and  discuss  the  conservation  of  our  natural 
resources  in  forests,  land,  water,  and  minerals. 

As  a  step  toward  this  policy  of  conservation,  the 

national  government  has  set  aside  a  vast  area  of  over 

100,000  square  miles  known  as  the  "  forest 

Protecting  >»    rr?i 

the  forest  reserves.  These  reserves,  m  extent  as  large 
as  the  States  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois  taken 
together,  are  to  be  held  in  trust  by  the  government 
for  the  welfare  of  the  entire  country.  The  reserves 
are  located  so  as  to  protect  the  headwaters  of  our 
great  rivers ;  and  they  are  guarded  by  men  called 
forest  rangers  or  foresters.  These  men  ride  through 
the  forests  on  horseback,  on  the  lookout  for  fires  and 
timber  thieves.  A  large  amount  of  timber  is  sold  each 
year  from  the  reserves;  but  government  officials  de- 


GOVERNMENT  AND  INDUSTRY  81 

termine  what  trees  may  be  cut.  New  trees  are  planted 
in  place  of  those  cut  down,  so  that  the  supply  shall 
not  become  exhausted. 

Many  of  the  States  have  likewise  set  aside  large 
tracts  of  forest  reserves.  These  are  managed  in  the 
same  way  as  the  national  reserves,  and  are  guarded 
by  forest  rangers.  About  one  half  of  the  States  have 
forest  commissioners,  charged  with  the  care  of  the 
State's  forests. 

85.  The  Improvement  of  Highways.  One  writer 
has  said  that  the  civilization  of  a  country  can  be  meas- 
ured by  the  excellence  of  its  roads.  Undoubtedly  the 
improvement  of  highways  is  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant means  whereby  government  aids  industry;  for 
each  year  the  products  hauled  over  our  roads  exceed 
in  value  all  the  freight  carried  by  all  the  railroads  of 
the  country. 

The  construction  of  wagon  roads  was  begun  in 
colonial  times ;  these  were  dirt  roads,  or  corduroy 
roads  where  swamps  were  to  be  crossed  (constructed 
by  felling  trees  and  laying  the  trunks  side  bj  side). 
With  the  advent  of  the  sawmill  came  the  plank 
roads;  and  these  were  followed  by  the  pikes,  or  roads 
covered  with  broken  stone.  Next  came  the  macadam- 
ized road,  the  most  approved  method  of  modern  road- 
building.  The  macadamized  road  derives  its  name 
from  John  Macadam,  a  Scotch  engineer  who  origin- 
ated this  method  of  construction.  It  consists  of  a 
foundation  of  large  crushed  stones,  on  top  of  which 
are  placed  additional  layers  of  smaller  stones.  Each 
layer,  after  being  moistened,  is  repeatedly  rolled  with 
a  steam  roller.  A  top  layer  of  asphalt  or  pitch  is  com* 


88  PREPARING  tX)R  CITIZENSHIP 

monly  used  as  a  binding  material,  and  the  result  is  a 
smooth,  hard,  and  durable  wearing  surface. 

As  a  rule,  the  construction  of  roads  is  a  function 

of  local  government,  generally  entrusted  to  the  county 

or  township  commissioners.  The  cost  of  im- 

A  function  ^.  . 

oi  local  gov-  provement  is  borne,  at  least  in  part,  by  the 
property  owners  along  the  road.^  In  times 
past  it  has  been  customary  to  permit  farmers  to  work 
out  their  road  tax  by  giving  several  days'  labor  with 
their  teams,  instead  of  paying  the  tax  in  money.  Poor 
roads  have  often  resulted  from  this  haphazard  method 
of  construction ;  so  that  more  progressive  communi- 
ties now  have  their  roads  built  under  the  supervision 
of  skilled  engineers,  who  make  use  of  modern  meth- 
ods and  machinery.  Our  roadmaking  has  improved 
during  the  last  twenty  years,  but  our  roads  are  still 
inferior  to  the  splendid  highways  built  by  the  pro- 
gressive countries  of  Europe. 

In  the  cities,  the  large  amount  of  heavy  traffic 
makes  the  question  of  street  pavement  a  most  im- 
streetpavB-  portant  One.  The  principal  materials  used 
ments  f^j.  q^j.qq^  pavements  are  cobblestones,  gran- 
ite and  Belgian  blocks,  wooden  blocks,  bricks,  and 
asphalt  (sheet  and  blocks).  No  single  material  is  best 
in  all  respects,  and  ordinarily  the  choice  is  largely 
influenced  by  the  question  of  cost.  The  cost  of  street 
improvements,  including  paving  and  sewers,  is  gener- 
ally assessed  upon  the  adjoining  property  owners. 

^  In  a  number  of  commonwealths  the  State  aids  the  local  community 
by  bearing  a  certain  proportion  of  the  expense  of  improving  highways. 
In  many  Southern  States,  convict  labor  is  being  utilized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  highways,  the  work  being  carried  on  under  the  di- 
reotion  of  government  officials. 


Courtesy,  The  American  City. 
THE  ORIGINAL  MULBERRY  STREET   BRIDGE,   HARRISBURG,   PA. 
The  result  of  that  city's  first  campaign  for  a  municipal  improvement. 


Courtesy,  The  American  dtp. 
THE  PRESENT  MULBERRY   STREET  VIADUCT 
An  imposing  structure  of  reinforced  concrete  has  replaced  the  old  bridge  of  iron  and  wood. 


Cmtrtetrif,  The  fiorest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 
THE  RESULT   OF  SCIENTIFIC   FORESTRY 

These  hills  have  been  reclothed  with  trees,  although  during  many  years  after  a  lumber  company 
had  worked  this  section  they  had  been  left  denuded  and  neglected. 


THE  WORK  OF  A  FRESHET 

One  result  of  the  destruction  of  forests;  for  without  trees  on  the  hills,  the  streams  are  liable  to 
swell  rapidly  during  the  spring.    Once  overflowing  their  banks,  they  can  do  great  damage- 


GOVERNMENT  AND  INDUSTRY  88 

86.  Waterways.  Nearly  all  the  canals  in  the  coun- 
try have  been  constructed  by  the  State  governments, 
or  by  companies  chartered  by  them.  The  period  of 
canal  construction  dates  from  1825  (when  the  Erie 
Canal  was  completed)  to  about  1840,  at  which  time 
attention  was  diverted  to  railroad  building.  The  con- 
struction of  canals  contributed  greatly  to  the  early 
development  of  the  commonwealths  in  which  they 
were  located,  as  for  some  time  their  competition 
served  as  a  check  upon  railroad  rates ;  but  with  f e^ 
exceptions  they  have  now  been  abandoned,  the  rail- 
way having  proved  too  formidable  a  competitor.^ 

87.  The  Factors  in  Production.  The  promotion 
of  better  agricultural  methods,  the  conservation  of 
our  forests,  the  improvement  of  roads  and  ^and,  laDor 
waterways,  —  these  services  of  government  °*^^**^ 
all  relate  to  land,  one  of  the  three  factors  in  produc- 
tion. There  are  two  other  important  factors,  namely, 
labor  and  capital;  and  we  shall  now  consider  the 
services  which  government  performs  in  relation  to 
each  of  these  agents. 

You  will  learn  in  your  later  study  that  most  of 
our  manufactured  products  are  made    in  large  fac- 
tories, by  means  of  machinery;  and  that  this  Large  «caie 
method   of  production    involves  many   far-  i'"'^^<'**°* 
reaching  consequences.  Production  on  a  large  scale, 

1  Since  1850  the  only  important  canals  constructed  are  the  Illi- 
nois and  Mississippi,  and  the  Chicago  Sanitary  and  Ship  Canal  ;  but 
Jarge  sums  have  been  spent  in  improving  the  Erie  Canal.  In  all  there 
are  forty-two  hundred  miles  of  canals  in  the  United  States,  located  in 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Virginia,  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Michigan;  but  many  of  these  have 
fallen  into  disuse.  Besides  those  mentioned,  the  other  principal  canals 
are  the  Illinois  and  Michigan,  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  the  Wabash 
and  Erie,  and  the  Saulfc  Sainte  Marie. 


84  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

by  means  of  machinery,  has  taken  industry  out  of 
the  home  into  immense  workshops  called  factories; 
it  has  led  to  the  growth  of  great  cities;  it  has 
brought  about  the  organization  of  large  corporations 
to  furnish  the  capital  necessary  for  these  colossal  in- 
dustrial enterprises ;  and  it  has ,  drawn  a  sharp  line 
of  division  between  the  employing  class,  and  the 
laborers  or  men  who  are  employed. 

88.  Labor  and  Factory  Laws.  Nearly  one  fourth 
of  all  the  people  in  the  United  States  are  employed 
by  others,  many  of  them  in  hazardous  occupations. 
To  protect  these  workers,  the  State  governments 
have  passed  measures  known  as  factory  laws,  which 
are  enforced  by  inspectors  who  travel  over  the  State, 
visiting  and  inspecting  factories  and  mercantile  estab- 
lishments. 

Factory   legislation    has   three  principal  objects: 

(1)  The  protection  of  the  health  of  employees,  by 

securing:  proper  ventilation,  heatins^,  lio^ht- 
mg,  and  good  sanitary  conditions  generally. 

(2)  The  prevention  of  accidents,  by  requiring  guards 
on  dangerous  machinery,  elevators,  and  hoistways; 
also  by  requiring  the  inspection  of  boilers,  and 
the  construction  of  suitable  exits  and  fire-escapes. 

(3)  The  regulation  of  the  conditions  of  employment, 
especial^  in  the  case  of  women  and  children,  by 
restricting  the  hours  of  labor,  prescribing  intervals 
of  rest  during  the  working-day,  prohibiting  night 
work,  and  fixing  a  minimum  age  limit  for  the  em» 
ployment  of  children  —  usually  fourteen  years.^ 

^  Social  welfare  imperatively  demands  the  restriction  of  child 
labor,  and  in  recent  years  much  has  been  accomplished  in  this  direc- 


GOVERNMENT  AND  INDUSTRY  85 

Many  commonwealths  have  provided  that  eight 
hours  shall  constitute  a  day's  work  for  all  laborers 
employed  by  the  State  or  local  governments,  th©  .ight- 
In  private  industry,  the  hours  of  labor  have  ^^^^^'^ 
been  reduced  from  twelve  or  fourteen  hours  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  eight  or  ten 
at  the  present  time ;  and  one  of  the  principal  aims 
of  labor  unions  is  to  secure  universal  acceptance  of 
the  eight-hour  day. 

To  aid  in  the  settlement  of  industrial  disputes, 
many  States  have  established  boards  of  arbitration. 
These  sfenerally  consist  of  three  or  five  mem-  .   .     , 

^      .  "^  Arbitration 

bers  appomted  by  the  governor,  employers  oi  labor dis- 
and  employees  being  equally  represented. 
When  strikes  or  lock-outs  occur,  it  is  the  duty  of  these 
boards  to  investigate  the  situation,  and  if  possible  to 
bring  about  an  amicable  settlement.  They  may  arbi- 
trate the  controversy,  providing  both  parties  consent. 
89.  Characteristics  and  Development  of  Corpora- 
tions. Capital  is  the  third  great  agency  in  the 
production  of  wealth.  Perhaps  the  most  character- 
important  economic  function  of  State  gov-  **^°* 
ernments  is  exercised  through  the  power  to  create 
and  regulate  corporations,  the  capitalistic  organiza- 
tions which  control  the  greater  part  of  the  commerce 
and  manufactures  of  the  country.  A  corporation  may 
be  defined  as  a  legal  person,  distinct  from  the  mem- 
bers who  comprise  it,  having  a  special  name,  and  the 
capacity  of  acting  for  various  purposes  as  a  single 
individual. 

fcion,  largely  owing  to  the  activity  of  the  General  Federation  of 
Women's  Clnbs  and  other  organizations.  In  1907,  measures  restrict- 
ing  the  employment  of  children  were  passed  in  twenty-eight  States. 


86  PREPAHING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

The  private  corporation  is  of  ancient  origin,  but 
its  remarkable  development  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
Deveiop-  ^^U  ^^J  ^®  traced  to  the  industrial  revolu- 
^^^  tion  of  the  eighteenth.  That  revolution  was 

characterized  by  the  change  from  hand  to  machine 
labor,  from  production  on  a  small  scale  to  the  factory 
system.  The  partnership  was  at  first  employed  as  a 
means  of  obtaining  the  larger  capital  demanded  by 
the  new  industrial  methods ;  and  this  continued  the 
common  form  of  business  association  until  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  But  even  the  partnership 
was  inadequate  for  the  colossal  industrial  develop- 
ment of  the  age  of  steam  and  electricity;  and  hence 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  cor- 
poration came  into  general  use  for  larger  industrial 
enterprises. 

90.  Organization  and  Control  of  Corporations.  In 
order  to  form  a  corporation,  a  number  of  men,  gen- 
erally  five  or  more,  apply  to  the  State  govern- 
organiza-  ment  f or  a  charter ;  that  is,  for  permission  t» 
organize  a  corporation.  The  application  must 
state  the  names  of  the  incorporators,  the  amount  of  the 
capital  stock,  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  corpora- 
tion is  formed.  If  the  secretary  of  State  finds  that  the 
application  is  in  due  legal  form,  he  issues  a  charter 
authorizing  the  corporation  to  do  business. 

The  capital  of  the  corporation  is  fixed  at  a  certain 
Amount,  divided  into  a  number  of  small  shares,  usu- 
stockhoid-  ^^ly  fifty  or  a  hundred  dollars  each,  which 
®"  are  sold  to  different  individuals.    Each  per- 

son who  purchases  a  share  thereby  becomes  a  stock- 
holder in  the  corporation,  and  is  entitled  to  vote  for 


GOVERNMENT  AND  INDUSTRY  87 

members  of  the  board  of  directors,  who  manage  the 
corporation's  business. 

Corporations  are  commonly  required  to  make  an  an- 
nual report  to  the  secretary  of  State,  setting  q^j^^^^q. 
forth  the  amount  of  their  capital  stock,  vol-  corpora- 
ume  of  business  done,  and  the  indebtedness. 
They  must  also  pay  taxes,  and  submit  to  such. regu- 
lations as  the  State  legislature  may  find  necessary. 

91.  Trusts  and  Industrial  Combinations.  Within 
recent  years  large  corporations  have  united  to  form 
what  are  called  trusts.  The  trust  or  indus- 

,  .         .         ,  .  •11    Necessity  ol 

trial  combination  has  an  immense  capital,  and  government 
generally  aims  to  produce  commodities  on  so 
large  a  scale  that  it  will  be  enabled  to  control  the 
market.  Both  the  State  and  national  governments 
have  passed  laws  designed  to  control  these  large  com- 
binations, for  their  methods  have  often  been  unfair 
toward  other  producers,  as  well  as  to  the  consumers 
who  use  their  products.  For  example,  in  times  past 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  has  been  able  to  secure 
from  the  railroads  lower  rates  for  shipping  oil  than 
were  granted  to  its  competitors ;  and  through  its  con- 
trol of  the  market,  it  has  been  able  to  fix  the  price  to 
the  consumer. 

92.  Regulation  of  Banks  and  Insurance  Companies. 
Certain  classes  of  corporations,  such  as  banks,  insur- 
ance companies,  and  railroads,  come  into  the 
closest  relations  with  the  people,  so  that  the 
management  of  these  corporations  is  a  matter  of  vital 
public  concern.  For  example,  the  whole  community 
is  interested  in  the  management  of  its  banks.  If  a 
bank  fails  on  account  of  dishonest  or  unwise  manage- 


88  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

ment,  the  loss  falls  not  on  the  depositors  alone,  but 
on  the  entire  community ;  for  the  effect  of  a  bank 
failure  is  to  discourage  habits  of  saving  among  the 
people. 

Likewise  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  insur- 
ance companies  be  managed  on  sound  financial  princi- 
ittsurance  P^^s ;  f Or  the  man  who  takes  out  an  insur- 
companies  ^^^^  policj  generally  does  so  for  the  benefit 
of  his  wife  and  children,  or  for  others  dependent  on 
him  for  support.  In  order  to  protect  the  policy  hold- 
ers and  the  public  generally,  most  States  have  passed 
laws  regulating  the  management  of  insurance  com- 
panies ;  and  State  inspectors  are  appointed  to  see  that 
these  laws  are  properly  enforced. 

93.  Regulation  of  Railroads.  The  railroad  business 
Is  likewise  of  vital  public  interest.  It  is  of  the  highest 
importance  that  fair  and  uniform  freight 
way  com-  rates  shall  be  charged  to  all  shippers,  for 
otherwise  the  prosperity  of  a  community  may 
be  checked  or  destroyed.  Hence,  many  States  have 
established  boards  of  railway  commissioners,  charged 
with  the  duty  of  protecting  the  public  and  the  ship- 
pers. Laws  have  been  passed  designed  to  prevent  dis- 
criminating rates  and  unreasonable  charges. 

State  regulations  concerning  railroads  apply  only 
to  the  traffic  wholly  within  the  boundaries  of  the  in- 
dividual commonwealth.  The  railroads  now 

Rogulation 

«i interstate  derive  most  of  their  revenue  from  traffic  be- 
tween different  States,  called  interstate  traf- 
fic ;  and  this  can  be  controlled  only  by  the  federal 
government.  This  control  is  exercised  by  means  of 
an  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  which  has  gen- 


GOVERNMENT  AND  INDUSTRY  80 

eral  supervision  over  railways  engaged  in  interstate 
traflSc. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  public  lands  are  now  owned  by  your  State  ?  Have  any 
steps  been  taken  toward  forest  preservation  ? 

2.  Explain  the  object  of  fish  and  game  laws.  Who  enforces 
these  measures  in  your  commonwealth  ? 

3.  What  restrictions  does  your  State  government  place  upon  the 
labor  of  women  and  cliildren  ? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  a  strike  ?  Lock-out  ?  Boycott  ?  Picketing? 

5.  Explain  how  a  strike  affects  many  more  people  than  the  em- 
ployer and  employees  in  the  particular  industry. 

6.  Is  there  a  State  board  of  arbitration  in  your  commonwealth? 
How  is  it  composed  ?  Has  it  been  successful  in  settling  indus- 
trial disputes  ? 

7.  What  are  the  common  hours  of  labor  in  the  various  industries 
in  your  State  ?  What  are  the  chief  arguments  in  favor  of  an 
eight-hour  day  as  compared  with  one  of  ten  or  twelve  hours  ? 

8.  Is  there  a  free  public  employment  office  in  your  community  ? 
What  work  does  it  perform  ? 

9.  Prepare  a  report  showing  (a)  the  wastes  of  excessive  compe- 
tition, and  (b)  tlie  advantages  of  large-scale  production.  (Jenks, 
J.  W.,  The  Trust  Problem.) 

10.  Name  several  partnerships  in  your  community ;  several  cor- 
porations. Name  five  of  the  largest  industrial  combinations 
(commonly  called  trusts)  in  the  United  States. 

11.  Who  has  charge  of  roadmaking  in  your  commonwealth? 
Does  the  State  supervise  road  construction  or  bear  part  of  the 
cost? 

12.  Are  there  any  canals  in  your  State  ?  What  officers  have  charge 
of  them  ?  When  were  they  constructed  ?  What  was  the  cost 
of  maintenance  last  year  ? 


CHAPTER  IX 

TOWN  AND  COUNTY  GOVERNMENT 

94.  The  Work  of  Local  Govemments.  In  preceding 
chapters  we  have  studied  the  work  performed  by  our 

State  and  local  erovernments.  We  have  seen 

Relation  to  .  ^  . 

State  gov-  that  such  important  duties  as  the  protection 
of  the  people,  public  education,  and  the  build- 
ing of  roads  and  bridges,  are  entrusted  chiefly  to  local 
governments,  although  the  State  government  cooper- 
ates in  the  work,  and  supervises  the  way  in  which 
it  is  carried  on.  We  should  bear  in  mind  that  these 
local  governments  (towns,  counties,  villages,  and 
cities)  are  merely  subdivisions  of  the  State,  created 
for  the  performance  of  this  work.  Just  as  a  manu- 
facturing concern  employs  men  to  carry  on  its  busi- 
ness, directing  and  controlling  them  as  the  manager 
sees  fit,  so  the  State  government  creates  these  local 
units  as  its  agent,  and  may  regulate  and  control  them 
in  the  performance  of  their  work. 

95.  Classification  of  Local  Govemments.  Local  gov- 
ernments are  of  two  kinds,  rural  and  urban.  Rural  lo- 
Ruraiand  ^^^  governments  include  towns  or  townships, 
"^*^  and  counties;  urban  governments  comprise 
cities  and  villages.  Rural  and  urban  governments 
perform  many  similar  duties,  such  as  maintaining 
order  and  providing  education ;  but  you  will  readily 
see  that  where  population  is  massed  in  cities,  there 
are  many  additional  duties  for  the  city  governments 


TOWN  AND  COUNTY  GOVERNMENT  91 

to  perform.  Suppose  you  try  to  think  of  several  things 
done  by  city  governments  which  are  not  necessary  in 
the  case  of  rural  communities. 

96.  Three  Types  of  Rural  Local  Government.  Of 
rural  local  governments  there  are  three  different  types 
in  the  United  States.  In  one  section  of  the  Town, 
Union,  the  town  performs  most  of  the  work  cJ^p^o^g^g 
of  local  government ;  in  another,  the  county;  types 
while  in  a  third,  the  business  of  local  government  is 
about  equally  divided  between  the  two  areas.  Hence 
the  three  types  of  rural  local  government  are  called : 
(1)  town  government,  (2)  county  government,  and 
(3)  the  township-county,  or  compromise  type.  If  a 
map  of  the  United  States  were  to  be  marked  off  into 
three  sections,  you  would  readily  see  where  each  type 
prevails.  You  would  find  the  town  system  in  the  six 
New  England  States;  the  county  system  in  the  South 
and  the  Far  West ;  and  the  compromise  type  in  the 
Middle  and  North  Central  States.  Let  us  now  trace 
the  historical  origin  of  each  of  these  types  of  local 
government. 

97.  Establishment  of  Towns  in  New  England.  As 
you  have  learned  in  your  study  of  history,  the  colo- 
nists who  first  settled  New  England  came  coioniai 
as  church  congregations,  each  headed  by  its  c®^'*"^®^ 
minister.  Hence  they  naturally  wished  to  have  their 
homes  near  together,  so  that  all  might  worship  at  the 
common  church.  Then,  too,  the  Indian  tribes  of  New 
England  were  hostile,  and  the  colonists  could  defend 
a  compact  community  more  readily  than  a  widely  scat- 
tered population.  Frequently  each  little  town  was 
surrounded  by  a  stockade,  and  provided  with  a  block- 


9«  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSfflP 

house  in  which  all  might  take  refuge  in  case  of  a  sud- 
den attack. 

The  "  town  "  included  not  only  the  group  of  dwell- 
ings within  the  stockade,  but  also  the  outlying  fields 
Meaning  oi  Cultivated  by  the  colonists.  So  we  must  re- 
"town"  member  that  the  word  "town"  as  used  in 
New  England  denotes  not  a  small  village,  but  a  dis- 
trict with  an  area  of  from  twenty  to  forty  square  miles. 

The  government  of  the  town  was  then,  as  it  is  to- 
day, a  pure  democracy ;  that  is,  the  laws  were  made 
Town  gov-  ^y  the  people  themselves,  instead  of  through 
«nmient  their  representatives.  All  the  men  of  the 
town  met  in  town-meeting  for  the  discussion  of  mat- 
ters of  common  concern,  such  as  the  defense  of  the 
community,  the  construction  of  roads,  the  support  of 
the  school,  and  the  care  of  the  poor.  On  these  and 
many  other  matters,  the  town-meeting  passed  laws 
called  "  by-laws  " ;  Mt  also  levied  taxes,  and  elected 
the  town  officers. 

98.  County  Government  at  the  South.  Very  differ- 
ent were  the  conditions  in  the  Southern  colonies. 
Conditions  The  men  who  came  to  Virginia  did  not 
at  the  South  come  as  church  congregations  seeking  a  land 
where  they  might  worship  freely ;  the  first  settlers, 
especially,  came  in  the  hope  of  finding  gold.  The 
soil  at  the  South  was  very  fertile  ;  and  the  slave  sys- 
tem tended  to  create  large  plantations.  The  houses  of 
the  planters  were  miles  apart,  so  that  it  was  impracti- 
cable for  them  to  meet  in  town-meeting,  as  did  the 
New  England  colonists. 

Hence  the  planters  at  the  South  adopted  a  system 

^  From  the  Danish  word  by  which  means  toion. 


TOWN  AND  COUNTY  GOVERNMENT     » 

of  county  government  similar  to  that  which  prevailed 
in  England.  The  Southern  colony  was  di-  countygoT- 
vided  into  a  number  of  counties,  each  gov-  «"^®^* 
erned  by  a  county  court.  This  body  was  composed 
of  eight  justices,  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the 
colony.  Thus  local  government  at  the  South  was 
much  less  democratic  than  in  New  England,  where 
the  people  met  in  town-meeting  to  pass  their  own 
laws  and  choose  their  own  local  officials.  Jefferson, 
himself  a  Virginian,  praised  the  democratic  govern- 
ment of  the  New  England  towns,  and  declared  it  an 
ideal  plan  of  local  self-government. 

99.  Township-County  System  of  Local  Government. 
The  Middle  Colonies  were  situated  between  New 
England  and  the  South,  and  hence  they  bor-  Acompro- 
rowed  some  features  of  their  local  govern-  ^^^sepian 
ment  from  each  section.  From  New  England  they 
took  the  township ;  from  the  South,  the  county. 
The  functions  of  local  government  were  divided  be- 
tween these  two  areas ;  hence  this  is  called  the  town- 
ship-county, or  compromise  type,  of  local  government. 

The  system  of   local  government  in  the  Middle 
Colonies  was  adopted  many  years  later  by  the  men 
who   moved  west   to  settle  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  As  a   result,  this   township-county  the  Middle 
system  now  prevails  throughout  the   great 
group  o£  States  extending  from  New  York  to  Ne- 
braska, which  together  include  more  than   half  the 
population  of  the  country.  It  is  thus  our  most  repre- 
sentative type  of  local  government. 

100.  Town  Government  at  Present.  The  most  im- 
portant  feature  of  New  England's  present  system 


94  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

of  town  government  is  the  town-meeting,  held  regit 
larly  once  each  year  in  the  town  hall.  Special  meet' 
The  town-  i"gs  are  called  from  time  to  time,  as  needed, 
meeting  rpj^^  town-mecting  regulates  practically  all 
local  affairs,  including  taxes,  schools,  poor  relief,  high- 
ways, police,  and  public  health.  All  voters  may  at- 
tend, take  part  in  the  discussion,  and  vote  upon  all 
questions.  By  enlisting  the  individual  citizen  in  the 
discussion  and  management  of  public  affairs,  the  town- 
meeting  affords  a  valuable  school  of  political  training. 

The  town-meeting  also  elects  the  town  officers.  The 
most  important  of  these  are  the  selectmen,  an  execu- 
Townotti-  ti'^^  board  of  from  three  to  nine  members, 
**•"  who  exercise  a  general  supervision  over  town 

affairs.  Other  officers  are  the  clerk,  who  keeps  the 
records,  issues  marriage  licenses,  and  registers  vital 
statistics;  the  treasurer,  the  collector  of  taxes,  the 
school  committee,  assessors,  constables,  highway  offi- 
cers, library  and  cemetery  trustees,  and  overseers  of 
the  poor. 

loi.  County  Government  at  Present.  All  the  States 
of  the  Union  are  subdivided  into  counties,^  but,  as 
Work  01  ^®  have  learned,  the  functions  performed 
county  gov-  by  the  county  vary  widely  in  different  parts 
of  the  Union.  In  New  England  the  county 
has  few  powers,  the  town  being  the  important  unit. 
At  the  South  and  in  the  Far  West,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  county  performs  most  of  the  work  of  local  gov- 
ernment. In  the  States  of  the  Middle  West,  it  divides 
this  work  with  the  township. 

^  In  Louisiana  the  division  corresponding  to  the  county  is  called  a 
parish. 


AN  OLD-FASHIONED  COUNTRY  ROAD 
Crudely  built,  uuskillfully  cared  for,  and,  in  stormy  seasons,  well-nigh  impassable. 


Courtesy,  Massachusetts  Highway  Commissio'i 
THE   SAME  ROAD   RECONSTRUCTED  AND   MAINTAINED   BY  THE   STATE 

Modern  methods  give  good  roads  at  all  seasons. 


1 

^                    T 

Courtesy,  The  American  City. 
THE  OLD   COUNTY  JAIL  AT  MOBILE,  ALA. 


Courtesy,  The  American  City. 
THE  NEW  MOBILE  COUNTY  COURT  HOUSE 

This  dignified  building  accommodates  tlie  jail  and  the  sheriff's  office,  and  also  the  offices 
of  the  County  Court  and  the  County  Assessor  and  Collector. 


TOWN  AND  COUNTY  GOVERNMENT  96 

The  most  important  officers  are  the  members  of  the 
county  board  of  commissioners  or  supervisors,  elected 
by  the  voters,  and  entrusted  with  general  su- 
pervision  over  county  affairs.    This   board  oommis- 
constructs  bridges  and  highways,  looks  after  super- 
the  poor,  maintains  the  jail  and  other  county 
buildings,  divides  the  county  into  school  and  road 
districts,  and  levies  county  taxes. 

Other  important  officers  are  the  sheriff,  who  is  the 
chief  executive  officer  of  the  county  court,  charged 
with   the  general   preservation  of  law  and    ^^ 
order  throus^hout  the  county.  A  prosecuting  otmaty 

°T  .     .      ,  "^  ^     .  1    officers 

attorney  conducts  criminal  prosecutions,  and 
represents  the  county  in  civil  suits.  Cases  of  violent 
or  mysterious  death  are  investigated  by  the  coroner, 
usually  with  the  aid  of  a  jury.  Public  records  are 
kept  by  the  county  clerk ;  and  deeds  and  mortgages 
are  made  a  matter  of  public  record  by  the  recorder. 
The  treasurer  and  auditor  have  charge  of  the  collec- 
tion and  expenditure  of  public  funds ;  and  a  county 
superintendent  supervises  the  work  of  the  schools. 
As  a  rule,  all  of  these  officers  are  elected  by  the 
voters,  for  terms  varying  from  two  to  four  years. 

102.  Township-County  Government.  Under  the 
township-county  plan,  the  powers  of  local  govern- 
ment are  divided  between  county  and  town-  ©ivision  of 
ship.  In  general,  the  same  county  officers  are  i^^®" 
elected  as  under  the  county  system  ;  but  each  county 
is  subdivided  into  a  number  of  smaller  townships. 
These  have  charge  of  such  affairs  as  the  maintenance 
of  schools,  the  construction  of  roads,  and  the  care  of 
the  poor. 


96  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

General  oversight  over  township  business  is  exer- 
cised by  the  township  trustees,  who  correspond  to  the 
Townsup  selectmen  of  the  New  England  town.  Other 
^*°®"  township  officers  are  the  clerk,  who  keeps  the 
records;  the  treasurer,  who  is  also  tax  collector ;  jus- 
tices of  the  peace,  who  try  minor  cases ;  tax  assessors, 
constables,  school  trustees,  and  overseers  of  the  poor. 

The  present  tendency  is  to  give  the  county  larger 
powers  over  such  local  affairs  as  the  schools  and  road 
County  building.  The  townships  are  too  small  to 
supervision  q^j>j.j  q^  ^his  work  in  the  most  efficient  way ; 
hence  county  governments  exercise  more  supervision 
than  formerly  over  township  administration. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

(^Questions  1-7  are  for  pupils  living  in  New  England) 

1.  How  many  towns  in  your  State  ?  What  is  the  population  of 
the  largest  ?  Of  the  smallest  ? 

2.  Does  town  government  in  New  England  tend  to  decrease  in 
importance  ? 

3.  How  many  representatives  has  your  town  in  the  legislature  ? 
Has  this  apportionment  been  made  in  accordance  with  the 
population  of  the  town  ? 

4.  Prepare  an  account  of  a  town-meeting,  discussing  the  follow- 
ing topics  :  {a)  how  composed  ;  (b)  method  of  calling  same ; 
(c)  how  conducted;  (d)  functions,  including  election  of  town 
officers,  making  of  appropriations,  enactment  of  by-laws. 

6.  Organize  the  class  into  a  town-meeting,  and  discuss  live  local 
questions  in  accordance  with  articles  in  a  warrant. 

6.  Describe  the  board  of  selectmen  in  your  town,  giving  theii 
names,  term,  and  functions. 

7.  Give  the  same  facts  concerning  the  other  executive  officers  of 
your  town. 

(^Questions  8-18  are  for  pupils  living  in  the  Central  and  Middle 
Western  States') 

%.  How  many  townships  in  your  county  ?  Name  them. 


TOWN  AND  COUNTY  GOVERNMENT  97 

9.  If  there  is  a  township  board,  give  the  number  of  menabers, 
term,  and  functions. 

10.  If  supervisory  authority  is  vested  in  a  single  officer,  give  his 
title,  term,  and  powers. 

11.  If  there  is  a  town-meeting,  answer  question  4,  above. 

12.  Give  the  names,  term,  and  functions  of  other  township  officers. 

13.  How  are  justices  of  the  peace  chosen  ?  What  cases  are  tried 
before  them  ? 

(Questions  I4, 15  are  for  pupils  in  the  South  and  Far  West) 

14.  What  is  the  name  of  the  subdivision  of  the  county  correspond- 
ing to  the  township  in  the  Central  States  ? 

15.  Give  the  names,  method  of  selection,  and  functions  of  the 
officers  chosen  within  this  area. 

(The  remaining  questions  are  for  pupils  in  all  sections) 

16.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  your  State,  and  mark  with  different 
colors  the  boundaries  of  the  county  in  which  you  live,  and 
also  the  boundaries  of  the  townships  (or  towns)  within  your 
county. 

17.  Give  the  area  and  population  of  your  county. 

18.  How  many  counties  are  there  in  your  State  ?  Name  the  five 
counties  having  the  largest  population  at  the  last  census. 
Name  the  five  counties  having  the  largest  area. 

19.  What  is  the  county  seat  of  your  county?  Is  it  centrally 
located  ?  Is  it  the  largest  city  in  the  county  ? 

20.  Visit  your  courthouse  and  other  county  buildings,  note  the 
uses  to  which  they  are  put,  and  prepare  a  class  report  upon 
any  facts  thus  learned. 

21.  What  is  the  area  of  your  town  or  township?  Its  population? 

22.  Which  of  the  following  functions  pertaining  to  local  needs 
ar*^  performed  by  your  county  ?  (a)  Levy  and  collection  of 
local  taxes;   (b)  administration    or   supervision   of   schools; 

(c)  construction    and    maintenance  of   local    public    works  *, 

(d)  administration  of  charities  and  corrections  ;  (e)  holding 
of  local  elections  ;   (/)  enactment  of  local  police  regulations. 

23.  Are  your  roads  laid  out  and  maintained  by  the  county  or 
township  ?  What  amount  was  expended  for  this  purpose  last 
year  ?  Are  the  roads  well  improved  and  cared  for  ?  Should 
the  State  aid  in  roadmaking  ? 

24.  Who  is  the  sheriff  of  your  county  ?  How  chosen  ?  Term  ? 
Authority  ? 

25.  Other  judicial  officers  of  the  county  generally  include  a  coio- 


98  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

ner,  prosecuting  attorney,  and   clerk  of  the  court.  Give  the 
names,  method  of  selection,  term,  salary,  and  duties  of  each. 

26.  Give  the  method  of  choosing,  term,  and  duties  of  each  of  the 
following  officers  (if  found  in  your  county)  :  clerk  or  auditor, 
treasurer,  recorder  or  register  of  deeds,  surveyor,  assessor, 

27.  Are  your  county  officers  paid  by  fees  or  salaries  ?  By  whom 
is  the  remuneration  determined .''  Which  are  the  most  lucra 
tive  offices  ? 


CHAPTER  X 

THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    CITIES 

103.  Position  of  the  City  in  History.  In  your  later 
study  you  will  learn  how  largely  history  has  been  in- 
fluenced by  the  srreat  cities  of  the  world  — 

•^  "  ,  Cities  the 

Athens,  Sparta,  Rome,  Naples,  Paris,  Lon-  home  of  ud- 
don,  and  Berlin.  You  will  find  that  such 
ancient  cities  as  Athens  and  Rome  were  all-powerful, 
that  they  governed  the  surrounding  territory  as  well 
as  the  area  within  the  city  walls,  and  were  indeed  the 
seats  of  mighty  empires.  You  will  learn  that  from 
early  times,  cities  were  the  cradle  of  liberty ;  that 
during  the  oppression  and  despotism  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  only  the  men  living  within  the  strong  walls  of 
the  city  were  able  to  maintain  their  liberties,  while 
the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  country  were  the 
serfs  of  some  feudal  lord.  You  may  read  much  of 
the  history  of  the  old  world  in  its  cities,  with  their 
temples,  and  statues,  and  cathedrals,  and  other  monu- 
ments of  a  past  civilization. 

104.  The  Life  and  Individuality  of  the  City.  Our 
American  cities  are  indeed  less  picturesque  than  the 
older  cities  of  Europe,  but  they  too  are  more  miiuences 
than  mere  crowds  of  people  who  choose  to  JJi^^Jy^*"* 
live  together.  Like  the  great  cities  of  Eu-  !"• 
rope,  they  have  a  life  and  an  individuality  of  their 
own.  We  who  live  in  a  city  form  a  part  of  that  life ; 
by  our  thoughts  and  deeds,  we  help  make  the  city's 


100  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

life  what  it  is.  Is  a  city  orderly,  well-governed,  pro* 
gressive  ?  Are  its  streets  clean  and  well-paved  ?  Are 
the  city  officials  honest  and  efficient  ?  Are  the  people 
proud  of  their  public  buildings  and  their  schools  ? 
Are  the  homes  of  the  city  attractive,  the  yards  well- 
kept,  and  adorned  with  trees  and  flowers  ?  Then  you 
may  be  sure  that  the  people  of  that  city  are  law-abid- 
ing, considerate  of  the  rights  of  others,  intelligent 
and  prosperous ;  for  the  city's  life  reflects  the  lives  of 
the  people  who  dwell  within  its  limits.  So  each  of  us 
has  the  power  to  help  make  his  city  the  ideal  place  in 
which  we  should  all  like  to  live. 

105.  Remarkable  Growth  of  American  Cities.  The 
rapid  growth  of  cities  in  the  United  States  is  one  of 
the  most  striking  facts  in  our  history.  In  1790  only 
about  three  per  cent  of  the  population  lived  in  cities ; 
to-day  nearly  one  half  of  our  people  are  city  residents.^ 
In  1790  there  were  only  six  cities  with  over  10,000 
population ;  now  there  are  603  such  cities.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Ke volution,  Philadelphia  was  the 
largest  city,  with  about  30,000  people  ;  the  last  census 
gave  greater  New  York  a  population  of  4,766,483, 
and  eighteen  other  cities  a  population  of  over  250,- 
000.  During  the  decade  from  1900  to  1910,  the  ur- 
ban population  of  the  United  States  increased  more 
than  three  times  as  fast  as  the  rural  population.^ 

This  remarkable  increase  in  urban  population  has 
been  due  largely  to  the  development  of  great  manu- 
facturing industries,  which  employ  thousands  of  work- 

1  The  last  census  shows  an  urban  population  of  42,623,383,  or  46.3 
per  cent  of  the  entire  population. 

2  Urban  population  increased  34.8  per  cent ;  rural  population,  11.2 
per  cent. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIIES  IQl 

men.  In  addition  to  large  numbers  of  native  labor- 
ers, these  industries  attract  to  the  United  States  a 
vast  army  of  immigrants,  many  of  whom  causes  oiur- 
obtain  employment  in  the  cities,  and  thus  ^^n growth 
greatly  increase  the  population  of  our  industrial  cen- 
ters. Then,  too,  great  numbers  of  people  are  attracted 
from  the  country  to  the  city  on  account  of  the  larger 
business  opportunities  which  city  life  seems  to  pro- 
mise ;  while  many  others  come  because  of  the  better 
educational  and  social  advantages  of  city  life. 

1 06.  Problems  confronting  our  Cities.  Many  serious 
problems  have  resulted  from  this  wonderful  growth  of 
our  cities.  First,  there  is  the  question  of  pro- 

,        •*•  .  The  educa- 

viding  school  accommodations  for  the  rapidly  tionai pro- 
increasing  number  of  city  children.  In  our 
large  industrial  cities,  the  problem  of  education  is 
rendered  more  dif&cult  by  the  arrival  each  year  of 
thousands  of  illiterate  immigrants,  whose  children 
must  be  transformed  through  the  public  school  system 
into  intelligent  and  loyal  American  citizens. 

Then,  especially  in  larger  cities,  there  is  a  serious 
housing  problem.  In  great  centers  of  population  like 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  a  thousand  peo-  Tenements 
pie  sometimes  dwell  in  a  single  city  block,  ?JJi|J® 
and  there  are  hundreds  of  families  each  liv-  ^®^"^ 
ing  in  a  single  room.  This  congestion  of  population 
in  the  tenements  invites  disease,  and  is  a  constant 
menace  to  the  health  and  morals  of  the  entire  city. 
Hence  the  question  of  regulating  tenements,  and  in- 
deed the  whole  problem  of  protecting  the  city's  health, 
becomes  a  matter  of  vital  public  concern. 

Another  difficult  municipal  question  is  that  of  trans- 


JOS  PJl^PARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

portation.  Our  rapidly  growing  cities  require  enlarged 
Transport-  transportation  facilities,  in  order  that  the 
**^^  thousands  of  toilers  may  be  able  to  reach 

their  work  with  the  least  possible  loss  of  time. 

Other  difficulties  arise  from  the  rapid  growth  of 
cities  to  a  size  not  anticipated  when  the  city  was 
Rebuilding  founded.  The  lack  of  adequate  provision  for 
the  city  parks  and  public  squares,  the  failure  to  pro- 
vide wide  business  streets  and  boulevards,  and  to 
reserve  land  for  public  buildings,  often  necessitates 
reconstructing  certain  portions  of  the  city  at  an  enor- 
mous public  expense. 

107.  Our  Most  Serious  Municipal  Problem.    The 

solution  of  these,  and  many  other  municipal  problems, 

is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  city  residents 

IndlHerence  ^  •  i        •  i  1 

of  citizens  are  not  acquainted  with  one  another,  as  in 
city  gov-  the  country.  Even  candidates  for  the  ward 
"^*^  offices  are  often  unknown  to  the  great  ma- 
jority of  voters  within  the  ward ;  and  too  often  voters 
blindly  cast  a  partisan  ballot,  regardless  of  the  merits 
of  the  candidates.  So  numerous  are  the  officials,  and 
so  complicated  the  question  of  responsibility  for  re- 
sults, that  voters  cannot  readily  detect  extravagance 
and  mismanagement  of  the  city's  business.  Hence, 
although  our  municipal  governments  spend  more 
money  in  proportion  to  population  than  either  the 
State  or  national  governments,  city  residents  often 
become  indifferent  concerning  the  management  of 
public  affairs.  Frequently  they  permit  professional 
politicians  to  run  the  government  of  the  city  to  please 
themselves.  If  this  management  becomes  very  in- 
efficient and  corrupt,  the  voters  may  arouse  themselves 


Courtesy,  S.  H.  Allen,  Supervisor  of  Parks,  Enid,  Okla. 
"BEFORE"  AND   "AFTER"  THE  PARK  WAS  BUILT 
Showing  how  a  useless  piece  of  woodland  was  made  into  a  most  attractive  spot. 


THE  CITY  HALL  AND  COOK  COUNTY  COURT  HOUSE  AT 
CHICAGO 


THE  CITY  HALL  AT  PORTLAND,  MAINE 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES  103 

for  the  time  being,  and  through  a  temporary  "reform 
movement "  wrest  control  of  the  city  from  the  hands 
of  the  poHticians.  Then  the  voters  usually  go  to  sleep 
again,  and  the  former  managers  of  the  city's  affairs 
quietly  resume  control. 

These  are  some  of  the  reasons  why  the  question  of 
city  government  is  to-day  the  most  difficult,  as  well 
as  the  most  important,  of  all  our  government  pro- 
blems. 

1 08.  Incorporation  and  Charters.  Like  counties  and 
townships,  cities  receive  their  right  of  self-govern- 
ment from  the  State.   This  is  grranted  in  the 

n  f,  ,  ir>»  I'j'i  Cities  con- 

lorm  01  a  charter,  denning  the  city  s  rights  troiied  Dy 
and  powers.    On  receiving  its  charter,  the 
city  is  said  to  be  incorporated ;  that  is,  it  has  become 
a  municipal  corporation. 

Frequently  the  State  legislature  passes  new  laws 
changing  the  terms  of  this  charter,  often  without 
reo^ard  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  of  the  city. 

.      .  ft  r      r  J      State  Inter- 

This  interference  on  the  part  of  the  State  ferencein 
legislature  tends  to  destroy  local  self-govern- 
ment, and  is  one  of  the  chief  obstacles  to  municipal 
progress.  Hence  a  majority  of  the  State  constitutions 
now  prohibit  the  legislature  from  passing  laws  which 
apply  to  a  single  city ;  in  other  words,  all  laws  con- 
cerning cities  must  be  general,  and  apply  to  all  cities 
in  the  State. 

Several  States*  have  gone  still  farther  in  endeavor- 
ing to  assure  self-government  to  their  cities.  Homo  rui* 
These  commonwealths  permit  cities  to  frame  *"  ®^^®* 

^  Including  California,  Colorado,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri, 
Ohio,  Oregon,  Oklahoma,  and  Washington. 


104  PREPARING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

and  amend  their  own  charters,  providing  these  are  not 
inconsistent  with  the  general  laws  of  the  State. 

109.  The  Three  Departments  of  City  Government. 
Except  in  those  cities  that  have  adopted  the  commis- 
Legisiative,  sion  plan,  the  form  of  municipal  government 
"Sdlciai  is  in  general  like  that  of  the  States  and  of 
inanches  ^\^q  nation.  There  is  a  legislative  department, 
the  city  council ;  an  executive  department,  consisting 
of  the  mayor  and  the  administrative  officers;  and  a 
judicial  department,  comprising  the  municipal  and 
police  courts. 

no.  The   City   Coimcil.    Legislative  authority  is 

vested  in  a  city  council,  generally  a  body  of  from 

five  to  thirty  members.    In  three  fourths  of 

the   cities,  the   council  consists  of  a  single 

chamber ;  in  others  there  is  an  upper  and  a  lower 

branch,  as  in  the  State  legislature. 

Members  of  the  council  are  sometimes  elected  by 
the  voters  of  the  entire  city,  each  voter  casting  his 
Election  and  ^^^l^t  for  all  the  members.  More  commonly 
term  the  city  is  divided  into  wards,  each  of  which 

is  represented  by  one  or  more  councilmen ;  so  that 
the  voter  helps  select  only  the  representative  from 
his  own  ward.  The  term  of  councilmen  is  short,  gen- 
erally one  or  two  years.  Members  are  usually  unpaid, 
or  receive  only  a  small  salary. 

III.  How  the  City  Council  transacts  Business. 
Regular  meetings  of  the  council  are  held  every  week. 
The  commit-  Or  once  in  two  weeks,  special  meetings  being 
tee  system  called  as  needed.  Like  Congress  and  the 
State  legislatures,  the  city  council  is  divided  into 
committees  for  the  consideration  of  business.    For 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES  105 

example,  there  is  a  committee  on  streets  and  side- 
walks, one  on  sewers,  a  committee  on  markets,  a 
finance  committee,  and  so  on. 

Measures  introduced  into  the  council  are  referred 
to  the  appropriate  committee ;  if  the  committee  ap- 
proves the  proposed  ordinance,  it  makes  a  Passing 
favorable  report  to  the  council,  whereupon  o'*^""^*'®^ 
the  measure  is  voted  upon  by  that  body.  If  approved 
by  a  majority  of  the  council,  the  act  is  signed  by  the 
presiding  officer ;  and  unless  the  mayor  has  the  veto 
power,  it  thereupon  becomes  an  ordinance  or  by-law, 
binding  upon  all  persons  within  the  city. 

Frequently  the  city  charter  gives  the  mayor  power 
to  disapprove  any  measure  passed  by  the  council.  If 
the  mayor  disapproves  or  vetoes  the  act,  it  The  mayor's 
does  not  become  effective  unless  the  council  ^®*° 
again  passes  it,  this  time  by  a  two-thirds  or  three- 
fourths  vote  of  all  members. 

112.  Financial  Powers  of  the  City  Council.  The 
most  important  powers  of  the  council  relate  to  the 
city's  finances,  and   include  the   power   to  ^^ 

levy  taxes,  to  make  appropriations,  and  to  appropria- 
borrow  money  by  issuing  bonds.  iLstimates 
of  the  amount  of  money  necessary  to  run  the  city's 
business  are  furnished  to  the  council  by  the  different 
city  departments;  and  the  council  passes  upon  these 
estimates,  determines  the  necessary  appropriations, 
and  fixes  the  tax  rate  accordingly.  Hence  the  im- 
portance of  choosing  honest  and  competent  men  to 
serve  in  the  city  council ;  for  if  unwise  expenditures 
are  voted,  the  tax  payers  of  the  city  suffer  a  direct 
financial  loss. 


106  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

When  large  public  works  are  to  be  built,  as  water* 
works  or  lighting  plants,  it  is  usually  necessary 
Municipal  ^^^  *^^  council  to  borrow  money  through 
bonds  ^i^Q  issue  of  bcTuds.  Bouds  are  really  the 
promissory  notes  of  the  city;  they  are  generally 
issued  in  amounts  of  $500  or  $1000  each,  for  a 
period  of  twenty,  thirty,  or  forty  years,  at  four  to 
six  per  cent  interest.  Municipal  bonds  are  sold  to 
bankers  or  other  persons  who  offer  to  pay  the  high- 
est premium  for  them;  and  the  money  received  is 
used  for  the  purpose  named  in  the  bond  issue.  On 
account  of  the  large  expenditures  involved,  many 
city  charters  require  all  proposed  bond  issues  to  be 
submitted  to  the  voters  for  approval. 

113.  The  Council's  Power  to  grant  Franchises. 
Another  important  power  of  council  is  that  of  grant- 
ing  franchises.  When  a  company  wishes  to 
chisesaro  supply  gas,  electricity,  or  telephone  service 
to  the  people  of  the  city,  or  desires  to  con- 
struct and  operate  a  street  railway  system,  it  applies 
to  the  city  council  for  the  privilege.  If  the  council 
approves  the  request,  it  grants  the  company  a  fran- 
chise, which  is  in  the  nature  of  a  contract  between 
the  city  and  the  company.  Generally  one  company  is 
granted  the  exclusive  right  to  furnish  the  particular 
service ;  for  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  different  com- 
panies furnishing  telephone  service,  or  operating 
rival  street  railway  systems.^    Hence   the   company 

^  Street  railway  systems,  telephone  plants,  and  waterworks  require 
a  large  outlay  for  construction  and  operation.  Competition  means 
building  two  plants  where  one  would  answer,  and  generally  results  in 
poor  service  at  high  rates.  Sooner  or  later,  the  competing  companies 
combine,  and  then  the  public  has  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  formet- 
wastef  ul  competition. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES  lOT 

which  receives  a  franchise  has  a  valuable  mono- 
poly ;  and  in  granting  franchises,  the  council  should 
insert  provisions  which  will  safesruard   the 

^  .  .     .  ^  .      .      The  puWic'sr 

rights  of  the  public.  This  is  done  by  limit-  interest  in 
ing  the  rates  to  be  charged  for  the  service,  by 
reserving  to  the  council  the  right  to  require  addi- 
tional facilities,  and  sometimes  by  providing  that  the 
city  may  take  over  the  plant  upon  payment  of  a  fair 
valuation. 

In  granting  franchises,  our  councils  have   often 
been  heedless  of  the  interests  of  the  city,  and  have 
failed  to  secure  an  adequate  return  for  the  popular 
privileges  granted.  In  some  cases,  unscrupu-  J.°^c^ge 
lous  men  have  bribed  council  members  in  e^^^nts 
order  to  obtain  valuable  franchises  on  their  own  terms. 
To  prevent  this,  many  city  charters  now  require  that 
all  franchises  granted  by  the  council  shall  be  submitted 
to  the  voters  for  their  approval. 

114.  Miscellaneous  Powers  of  the  Council.  The  re- 
maining powers  of  the  city  council  are  in  general  like 
those  which  the  county  board  exercises  for  the  county. 
These  include  the  purchase  of  property  for  public 
uses,  the  construction  of  public  buildings,  the  preserv- 
ation of  order,  the  protection  of  the  public  health, 
the  power  to  issue  licenses,  and  the  general  control 
over  the  city's  local  affairs. 

115.  The  City's  Executive  Department.  The  execu- 
tive branch   of  the  city  government  comprises  the 
mayor,  aided  by  a  number  of  administrative  The  mayor 
boards  or  chiefs  ;  and  a  large  number  of  sub-  ^^'^^l* 
ordinate  officials.  The  mayor  is  elected  by  ^^^^^ 
popular  vote  for  a  term  varying  from  one  to  five  years, 


108  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

two  years  being  the  common  term.  He  receives  a  sal* 
ary  which  ranges  from  a  few  hundred  dollars  in  the 
smaller  municipalities  to  $15,000  in  New  York  City. 

The  authority  of  the  mayor  varies  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent cities.  Generally  he  has  power  to  appoint  the 
Themayor's  heads  of  the  administrative  service,  subject 
administta-  *^  confirmation  by  the  council.  For  the  ra- 
tion moval  of  of&cers  thus  appointed,  the  consent 
of  council  is  also  necessary ;  so  that  responsibility  for 
the  administration  is  divided  between  the  mayor  and 
the  council.  This  divided  authority  makes  it  almost 
impossible  to  locate  the  responsibility  for  inefficient 
service.  In  other  words,  while  the  mayor  is  in  theory 
responsible  for  the  administration  of  the  city's  busi- 
ness, he  cannot  be  held  actually  accountable,  for  many 
of  the  city  officials  he  cannot  possibly  control.  His 
powers  are  not  equal  to  his  responsibility. 

Eecent  charters,  especially  in  the  larger  cities,  give 
the  mayor  power  to  appoint  the  heads  of  the  admin- 
istrative departments  without  the  approval  of 
sponsible      council;  and  also  the  rigrht  to  remove  them 

mayor"  ...  . 

at  his  discretion.  Under  this  plan,  the  mayor 
becomes  the  actual  and  responsible  head  of  the  city 
administration. 

In  all  cities,  the  mayor  is  the  chief  guardian  of  the 
Mayor's  pcacc  of  the  city,  as  the  sheriff  is  for  the 
feaureuie  county,  and  has  similar  powers  with  regard 
peace  ^q  quelling  riots  and  calling  upon  the  gov- 

ernor for  the  State  militia. 

In  many  cities,  the  mayor  has  the  important  power  of 
vetoing  or  forbidding  ordinances  which  have 
been  passed  by  the  city  council  (Sec.  111). 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES  lOd 

In  this  way  he  exercises  an  important  control  over 
city  legislation. 

ii6.  Administrative  Departments  of  the  City.  In 
order  to  carry  on  the  large  volume  of  business  per- 
formed by  the  city  government,  administrative  depart- 
ments are  organized,  under  the  control  of  boards  or 
departments  chiefs.  In  the  larger  cities,  for  example, 
there  are  departments  of  public  works,  of  police,  fire, 
health,  law,  elections,  education,  libraries,  parks, 
finance,  and  charities. 

If  the  city's  business  is  to  be  efficiently  managed, 
it  is  necessary,  (Ij  that  there  shall  be  a  single  indi- 
vidual who  can  be  held  definitely  accountable 

^  Essentials 

for  the  work  of  all  these  departments ;  (2)  that  of  good 
the  various  departments  work  together  in  har-  adminis- 
mony ;  and  (3)  that  the  numerous  subordin- 
ate employees  be  chosen  on  the  basis  of  merit,  rather 
than  because  of  services  rendered  to  some  political 
party. 

117.  Selection  of  Administrative  Boards  and  Offi- 
cers. The  method  of  selecting  the  chief  administrative 
officers  and  boards  varies  widely  in  different 
cities.  Sometimes  they  are  elected    by  the  methods  oi 
council ;   or  they  may  be  appointed  by  the 
mayor,  with  or  without  confirmation  by  council ;  and 
again,  they  are  often  elected  by  popular  vote.  Appoint- 
ment by  the  mayor,  with  confirmation  by  council,  is 
the  common  method ;  but  the  present  tendency  in 
the  large  cities  is  to  give  the  mayor  exclusive  power 
to  appoint  and  remove  the  principal  administrative 
officers. 

In  most  cities,  the  treasurer,  comptroller,  and  mem* 


110  PREPARING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

bers  of  the  board  of  education  are  elected  by  pop- 
ular vote;  and  generally  the  police  judge, 
boards  and    the  city  solicitor,  and  the  tax  assessor  are 

officials  1  •      ji  • 

chosen  m  this  way. 

The  library  and  park  departments  of  the  city  are 
sometimes  under  the  control  of  boards,  instead  of  ad- 
Libraryand  uiinistrativc  chiefs.  Members  of  these  boards 
park  boards  usually  scrve  without  pay,  the  routine  work 
of  the  department  being  performed  by  salaried 
officials. 

In  some  cities,  the  police,  fire,  and  health  depart- 
ments are  managed  by  boards,  which  are  generally 
appointed  by  the  mayor ;  but  in  many  others, 

andheaitii  each  of  these  departments  is  under  the  con- 
departments   .      1      n  •     •  1       •  *    X    1    1- 

trol  or  a  commissioner,  who  is  appointed  by 
the  mayor,  or  elected  by  popular  vote.  Sometimes  these 
three  departments  are  combined  under  the  supervis- 
ion of  a  board  of  public  safety,  or  a  commissioner  of 
public  safety. 

The  street  and  the  building  departments  are  also 

sometimes  united  under  a  board  of  public 

street  and  ,  .     .  t-,  i  •    • 

building  works,  or  a  commissioner.  £5y  combining 
departments  gg^^j.^^  departments  under  a  single  board  or 
commissioner,  it  is  easier  to  locate  responsibility  for 
their  management. 

ii8.  The  Commission  Plan  of  City  Government. 

We  have  seen  that  the  large  number  of  city  officials, 

and  the  distribution  of  authority  among  many 

vested  ma    administrative  boards  and  officers,  makes  it 

small  board  ^'£^^^^1^  ^^  j^qI^j  g^j^y  q^q  responsible  for  the 

management  of  the  city's  business.  One  of  the  most 
promising  plans  for  correcting  this  condition  is  known 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF   CITIES  111 

as  "  the  commission  system "  of  city  government. 
Under  the  commission  plan,  the  entire  city  administra* 
tion  is  entrusted  to  five  commissioners,  elected  by  the 
voters  of  the  city.  One  of  the  commissioners  has  the 
title  of  mayor,  and  has  general  supervision  over  the 
entire  administration.  Each  of  the  other  four  com- 
missioners has  charge  of  one  of  the  four  city  depart- 
ments :  (1)  the  department  of  finance,  (2)  that  of  water- 
works and  sewers,  (3)  police  and  fire  protection,  and 
(4)  streets  and  public  property.  The  five  commis- 
sioners meet  as  a  body  to  pass  ordinances,  to  make 
important  appointments,  to  vote  appropriations,  and 
to  award  contracts. 

The  commission  plan  eliminates  the  city  council, 
and  makes  the  government  of  the  city  more  like  that 
of  a  business  corporation,  which  entrusts  popularity 
large  powers  to  a  small  board  of  directors.  miMJo^"^' 
Thus  it  has  the  great  merit  of  definitely  p^"^ 
locating  responsibility  for  the  city's  administration. 
Over  five  hundred  cities  have  now  adopted  some  form 
of  commission  government;  and  the  system  seems  to 
be  rapidly  growing  in  public  favor. 

A  recent  modification  of  the  commission  form  of 
government  is  known  as  the  "city-manager"  plan. 
This  provides  for  a  small  elective  commission, 
but  the  commission  does  not  itself  carry  on  manager" 
the  work  of  government.    For  the  general  ^^"^ 
management  of  the  city's  affairs,  the  commission  ap- 
points an  expert  administrator,  or  city  manager.    The 
city-manager  plan  aims  to  secure  permanent,  expert 
service  for  the  city's  administration,  in  the  same  way 
that  a  large  corporation  selects  an  expert  and  capable 


112  PREPARING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

manager  for  its  affairs.  Responsibility  for  the  city's 
administration  is  centered  chiefly  in  the  manager, 
since  the  commission  usually  gives  him  large  author- 
ity. If  the  city's  affairs  go  wrong,  the  voters  know 
whom  to  blame.  Dayton  is  the  only  city  with  over 
100,000  population  that  is  governed  by  a  city  man- 
ager, but  the  plan  has  been  adopted  by  more  than  one 
hundred  smaller  cities. 

119.  Civil  Service  Reform  in  Cities.  City  govern- 
ments have  suffered  greatly  from  the  spoils  system. 
The  spoils  Under  this  system,  men  are  appointed  to 
system  office  bccause  of  their  services  to  a  political 
party,  or  because  they  are  friends  of  the  successful 
candidates,  rather  than  on  account  of  their  ability  to 
perform  the  duties  of  the  office.  The  great  national 
parties  wage  vigorous  political  campaigns  in  the  cities, 
and  seek  to  elect  their  candidates  on  partisan  issues 
which  have  no  bearing  upon  local  affairs.  It  is  of 
no  practical  consequence  to  the  residents  of  the  city 
whether  the  street  commissioner  is  a  Democrat  or  a 
Republican ;  the  important  consideration  is  his  hon- 
esty and  ability.  But  the  national  parties  insist  upon 
electing  local  candidates  upon  the  basis  of  their  Demo- 
cratic or  Republican  politics,  so  that  they  can  use  the 
city  offices  as  rewards  for  faithful  party  workers. 

Now  the  work  of  paving  and  cleaning  the  streets, 
providing  a  water-supply,  and  constructing  public 
City  affairs  buildings,  is  a  business  matter,  and  has  no 
^l^^^tl      relation  to  a  man's  views  on  the  tariff.    The 

ness,  not 

politics  policeman,  the  fireman,  the  clerk  in  the  water- 
works office,  ought  to  be  selected  because  of  ability  to 
do  the  work  well;  and  they  should  not  be  turned 


THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES  118 

out  of  office  except  for  incompetency.  In  other  words, 
the  subordinate  city  officials  should  be  appointed  and 
should  hold  their  positions  on  the  same  basis  as  the 
employees  of  a  private  business  concern.  The  man- 
ager of  such  a  company  does  not  inquire  about  the 
politics  of  his  employees :  he  is  interested  only  in 
the  question  of  their  honesty  and  efficiency. 

In  order  to  eliminate  from  our  municipal  govern- 
ment the  spoils  system,  with  the  inefficiency  and  cor- 
ruption which  it  involves,  many  cities  have  civiiserv- 
established  a  merit  system  for  the  selection  ice  reform 
of  subordinate  city  employees.  Under  this  plan  of  civil 
service  reform,  competitive  examinations  are  held,  and 
appointments  are  made  on  the  basis  of  merit.  More- 
over, employees  thus  appointed  cannot  be  removed 
from  office  except  for  incompetency.  This  reform  of 
our  civil  service  is  one  of  the  most  promising  means 
of  securing  better  city  government;  it  makes  appoint- 
ment to  office,  tenure,  and  promotion  depend  upon  as- 
certained merit,  rather  than  upon  political  inlluencer 

120.  City  Elections.  Another  means  of  eliminating 
the  evil  of  partisan  politics  in  our  city  affairs  is  by 
separatinsT  municipal  from  State  and  national 

/^    .  ^  ^  1.1  •.        1  Whysepa- 

elections.  in  many  commonwealths,  city  elec-  rate  elec- 
tions are  held  in  the  spring,  or  in  the  odd- 
numbered  years,  so  that  municipal  questions  may  be 
considered  on  their  merits,  apart  from  the  issues  of 
State  and  national   politics.    In   separate  municipal 
elections,  voters  are  less  likely  to  support  the  entire 
ticket  of  their  party;  and  they  are  more  inclined  to 
exercise  discrimination  in  favor  of  the  best  men. 
Nomination   of   candidates   by    petition   has  also 


114  PREPARING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

proven  an  effective  means  of  securing  good  candi- 
Nomination  dates,  and  is  especially  valuable  as  a  check 
toy  petition  ^pQ^  the  nominations  made  by  political  par- 
ties (Sec.  37). 

121.  Summary  of  Municipal  Functions.  In  other 
chapters  we  have  studied  the  many  important  func- 
tions performed  by  city  governments.  These  are  as 
follows :  — 

(1)  The  city  must  protect  the  lives  and  property  of 
its  citizens  ;  this  it  does  by  means  of  its  police  and  fire 
departments  (Sees.  42-46). 

(2)  It  safeguards  the  health  of  city  residents 
through  its  health  department  (Sees.  47-48). 

(3)  The  city  government  provides  public  parks, 
playgrounds,  and  boulevards  for  the  enjoyment  and 
recreation  of  the  people  (Sec.  52). 

(4)  The  city  maintains  schools  and  libraries  for  the 
great  purpose  of  free  public  education  (Sees.  64-66). 

(5)  The  city  government  has  charge  of  the  streets. 
This  duty  includes  the  paving  and  lighting  of  streets, 
the  construction  of  sewers,  street  cleaning,  and  the 
removal  of  waste  (Sees.  50-51). 

(6)  The  city  provides  a  water-supply,  or  author- 
izes some  company  to  perform  this  important  service 
(Sec.  50). 

(7)  The  city  should  regulate  transportation  on 
street  railways  in  such  a  way  that  the  people  will 
secure  low  fares  and  good  service  (Sec.  113). 

(8)  The  city  government,  aided  by  private  charita- 
ble organizations,  must  care  for  the  poor,  always  more 
numerous  in  cities  than  in  the  country  (Chap.  vii). 

(9)  Through  public  taxation,  the  city  council  ^.ust 


THE   GOVERNMENT  OF  CITIES  115 

obtain  the  funds  necessary  for  all  these  purposes,  and 
expend  them  wisely  and  economically  (Chap.  xii). 

In  order  that  all  of  these  great  public  services  may 
be  properly  carried  on,  the  city  needs  the  intelligent 
cooperation  of  every  citizen.  By  watchful  care  of  his 
conduct,  by  constant  regard  for  the  rights  of  his 
neighbors,  and  by  taking  an  intelligent  interest  in 
municipal  affairs,  every  boy  and  girl  can  help  the  city 
in  its  great  work. 


QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  is  the  area  of  your  city  ?  Its  population  ? 

2.  Was  your  charter  granted  to  the  city  by  the  State  legislature  ? 
How  may  it  be  amended  ? 

3.  Into  how  many  wards  is  your  city  divided  ?  In  which  on« 
do  you  live  ? 

4.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  your  city,  marking  the  boundaries 
of  the  wards. 

6.  Does  your  council  consist  of  one  chamber  or  of  two  ?  How 
many  members  are  there  in  the  council? 

6.  Are  the  members  elected  from  wards  or  from  the  entire  city  ? 
Which  is  the  better  method  ? 

7.  Give  the  qualifications,  term,  and  salary  of  members  of  the 
council. 

8.  Are  members  nominated  by  party  conventions,  direct  pri- 
maries, or  by  petition  (nomination  papers)  ?  Which  method 
is  preferable  ? 

9.  How  many  committees  in  your  city  council?  How  chosen? 
Name  the  important  ones. 

10.  When  does  your  council  meet?  Where?  Visit  a  council 
meeting  and  write  an  account  of  it. 

11.  State  the  following  facts  concerning  your  mayor :  how  elected, 
term,  qualifications,  salary,  how  removed. 

12.  What  administrative  officers  does  the  mayor  appoint?  Can 
he  remove  these  officers?  Is  the  consent  of  the  council  neces- 
sary in  either  case? 

13.  How  many  persons  are  employed  by  your  city  government? 
What  departments  employ  the  largest  number  of  persons  ? 


116  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

14.  Is  there  a  civil  service  commission  in  your  city  ?  If  so,  de. 
scribe  its  duties. 

15.  Has  your  mayor  the  veto  power  ?  If  so,  what  vote  is  neces- 
sary to  pass  an  ordinance  over  his  veto  ? 

16.  In  case  of  serious  disorder  or  riot  in  your  city,  what  would 
be  the  duty  of  the  mayor  ? 

17.  Make  a  list  of  the  other  important  executive  officers  in  your 
city.  State  how  they  are  chosen  and  describe  their  duties. 
Do  these  officers  belong  to  the  same  political  party  as  the 
mayor  ?    Are  they  subject  to  his  control  ? 

18.  Name  the  courts  in  your  city.  How  are  the  judges  chosen? 
Is  there  a  juvenile  court  ?    If  so,  describe  its  work. 

19.  What  is  your  city  tax  rate  ?  What  was  the  total  amount  of 
taxes  collected  for  city  purposes. last  year? 

20.  What  is  the  total  debt  of  your  city  ?  How  is  this  debt  to  be 
paid  ?    In  what  way  was  the  money  borrowed? 

!^1.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  fire  department  in  your  city. 
How  many  firemen  are  employed?  What  was  the  cost  of 
police  and  fire  protection  last  year  ? 

22.  Are  the  police  and  fire  departments  under  civil  service  rules  ? 
Give  arguments  in  favor  of  this  plan. 

23.  How  many  members  on  your  board  of  education  ?  Are  they 
chosen  from  wards,  districts,  or  at  large  ?  Term  of  members  ? 
What  are  the  duties  of  the  board  of  education  ? 

24.  What  officials  manage  the  park  system  of  your  city  ?  Locate 
the  principal  narks.  Are  they  placed  so  as  to  be  easily  acces- 
sible to  the  public  ? 

25.  Does  your  city  maintain  public  playgrounds  for  children  ? 
Does  it  provide  municipal  baths? 

26.  Is  the  cost  of  street  paving  paid  out  of  the  general  fund,  as- 
sessed upon  property  owners,  or  is  a  combination  of  the  two 
methods  employed  ? 

27.  Are  the  streets  well-paved  ?  What  materials  are  chiefly  em- 
ployed? Are  the  streets  kept  clean  and  in  good  repair? 
What  was  the  cost  of  maintenance  last  year  ? 

28.  Is  your  water-supply  under  municipal  or  private  control  ?  If 
the  former,  name  the  authority  in  charge.  How  is  the  cost 
met? 

29.  Are  your  streets  lighted  by  gas  or  by  electricity  ?  Is  the  plant 
under  private  or  public  control  ? 

30.  Give  arguments  for  and  against  municipal  ownership  of 
waterworks  and  lighting-plants. 

31.  What  body  has  the  power  to  grant  franchises?  Why  are 
franchises  so  important  to  the  people  of  a  city? 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE   STATE    GOVERNMENTS 

122.  Origin  of  the  State  Governments.  In  your 
study  of  American  history,  you  have  learned  that 
all  of   the  original   thirteen   States  except 

IiSta1)lls]i> 

Georgia  were  established  as  colonies  dur-  mentoi 
ing  the  seventeenth  century.  These  colonies 
were  usually  founded  by  companies  or  individuals 
who  had  received  a  charter  from  the  British  crown, 
authorizing  them  to  settle  certain  parts  of  America. 
The  early  scattered  settlements  grew  rapidly,  and 
developed  into  the  thirteen  sturdy  colonies  which 
from  the  outset  were  exceedingly  jealous  of  their 
rights  and  privileges.  In  each  of  these  colonies,  there 
was  a  governor,  generally  appointed  by  the  king,  or 
by  the  proprietor ;  ^  a  legislature,  the  lower  house  of 
which  was  elected  by  the  people ;  and  a  system  of 
courts  for  the  trial  of  civil  and  criminal  cases. 

You  all  know  the  story  of  the  brave  struggle  of 
the  people  of  these  thirteen  colonies  against  the  gov- 
ernment of  Great  Britain ;  of  their  resistance  colonies 
to  taxation  without  representation ;  of  the  JependeS" 
final  appeal  to  arms,  and  the  glorious  con-  ^^^^^ 
elusion  of  the  seven  long  years  of  warfare.  So  the 
close  of  the  Revolution  found  the  thirteen  colonies 
transformed  into  thirteen  independent  States,  which 

^  In  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  the  people  elected  the  governor, 
and  also  both  branches  of  the  legislature. 


118  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

soon  afterwards  united  to  form  a  nation  under  the 
federal  constitution.  To  this  union  of  States  new  com- 
monwealths were  admitted  one  by  one,  as  the  pioneers 
moved  westward  to  settle  the  unbroken  wilderness. 
As  each  State  was  admitted,  a  new  star  was  added 
to  the  blue  field  of  the  flag,  until  to-day  we  have 
forty-eight  States,  each  a  partner  in  the  great  Union 
of  which  we  are  justly  proud. 

123.  The  Formation  of  State  Constitutions.  You 
have  learned  that  many  of  the  original  thirteen  col- 
« ....  ..     onies  were  e^ranted  charters  by  the  British 

Modification  mi  i  in 

oi  colonial  crowu.  The  charter  defined  the  territorial 
limits  of  the  colony,  and  outlined  the  general 
form  of  the  government,  consisting  of  legislative,  exe- 
cutive, and  j  udicial  departments.  When  independence 
was  declared  in  1776,  the  colonies  made  over  their 
charters  into  State  constitutions,  or  framed  new  con- 
stitutions patterned  after  the  colonial  charters.  These 
early  constitutions  have  now  been  replaced  with  more 
recent  ones ;  but  at  least  three  of  the  New  England 
States  continued  under  their  original  constitutions 
for  many  years. 

When  the  people  of  a  State  desire  to  adopt  a  new 
constitution,  the  initiative  is  usually  taken  by  the 
State  legislature,  which  passes  a  resolution 
tionaicon-  calling  for  a  Constitutional  Convention.^  This 
resolution  is  submitted  to  popular  vote  at  the 
next  election;  if  the  voters  approve  the  proposal, 
arrangements  are  made  for  the  election  of  delegates. 
The  legislature  designates  the  time  and  place  for  the 
meeting  of  the  convention;  and  the  State  is  divided 

^  A  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  of  each  branch  of  the  legisla- 
jture  is  generally  necessary  to  pass  this  resolution. 


THE   STATE   GOVERNMENTS  119 

into  districts,  in  each  of  which  the  voters  elect  one 
or  more  delegates  to  represent  them.  After  due  dis- 
cussion and  deliberation,  the  convention  frames  a  new 
constitution,  which  is  then  submitted  to  the  voters  o£ 
the  State  for  approval  or  rejection. 

When  territories  apply  for  admission  to  the  Union, 
a  constitution  is  prepared  in  the  manner  described 
above,  by  a  convention  chosen  for  the  pur-  Admission 
pose;  but  this  constitution  must  be  submit-  o* territories 
ted  to  Congress  for  approval,  as  well  as  to  the  voters 
of  the  territory.  Congress  may  then  pass  a  resolu- 
tion admitting  the  territory  to  statehood. 

124.  Authority  of  State  Constitutions.  The  consti- 
tution expresses  the  will  of  the  people  in  a  solemn 
and  deliberate  ag^reement;  and  it  cannot  be 

Supreme  or 

changed  in  any  way  except  by  a  direct  vote  fundamental 
of  the  people.  Hence  the  constitution  is  the 
supreme  or  fundamental  law  of  the  State,  the  law  of 
highest  authority.^  All  laws  passed  by  the  State  legis- 
lature, all  ordinances  of  city  councils,  and  all  actions 
of  executive  officials,  must  be  in  accordance  with  its 
terms;  otherwise  these  laws  or  actions  are  null  and 
void,  and  may  be  so  declared  by  the  courts. 

125.  Parts  of  the  State  Constitution.  The  State  con- 
stitutions differ  in  detail,  but  follow  the  same  general 
plan,  and  ordinarily  include  three  main  divis- 

r  -r,.  .  1  -n       P       •    1  •         BiU  Of  rights 

ions.  First,  there  is  a  bill  or  rights,  setting 

forth  certain  fundamental  principles  of  government, 

and  enumerating  important  rights  of  the  individual 

^  That  is,  supreme  as  compared  with  laws  passed  by  the  State  legis- 
lature, or  actions  of  State  executive  officials.  We  shall  see  later  that 
tiie  national  constitution  is  of  still  higher  authority,  and  State  consti- 
tutions must  not  conflict  with  its  provisions. 


120  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

with  which  government  may  not  interfere.  For  ex- 
ample, the  bill  of  rights  usually  guarantees  freedom 
of  speech  and  of  the  press,  provides  for  a  fair  and 
impartial  trial  of  persons  accused  of  crime,  prohibits 
any  law  interfering  with  religious  freedom,  and  se- 
cures other  important  civil  and  political  rights. 

The  second  division  of  the  constitution  establishes 
_  the  sreneral  framework  of  sfovernment,  con- 

Pramework      .     .  °        p    i      i       •  i      •  •  ,    .     ,. 

of  govern-     sisting  01  the  legislative,  executive,  and  judi- 
cial departments.  It  sets  forth  the  powers  of 
each  of  these  departments,  and  the  method  of  choos- 
ing  government  officers. 

The  third  part  includes  a  large  number  of  miscella- 
neous provisions,  such  as  the  articles  upon  suffrage, 
education,  local  government,  corporations, 
provis-  taxation,  and  public  lands,  together  with  the 
method  of  amending  or  revising  the  consti- 
tution. As  a  rule,  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  branch 
of  the  legislature  is  necessary  to  propose  a  consti- 
tutional amendment.  If  ratified  by  a  majority  of 
those  voting  upon  it  at  the  following  State  election, 
the  amendment  becomes  a  part  of  the  constitution. 

126.  The  State  Legislature.  The  lawmaking  power 
of  the  State  is  vested  in  a  legislature,  which  consists 
of  two  houses  or  branches.  The  upper  house 
or  Senate  is  the  smaller  body,  generally 
about  one  third  the  size  of  the  lower  branch,  called 
the  house  of  representatives  or  assembly.  The  two 
houses  have  practically  the  same  powers,^  and  every 
bill  must  pass  each  house  separately  before  it  can  be- 

^  In  most  States,  bills  for  raising  revenue  must  originate  in  the  lower 
house. 


ons 
Ions 


THE  NEW  YORK  STATE  CAPITOL  AT  ALBANY 


THE  OHIO  STATE    CAPITOL  AT  COLUMBUS 


THE   COLORADO   STATE  CAPITOL,   DENVER 


WTi^iiW   n  1  *'*'"  JiB  i jM 

THE  MASSACHUSETTS   STATE  HOUSE,    BOSTON 


THE  STATE  GOVERNMENTS  121 

come  a  law.  The  idea  in  having  two  branches  is  that 
each  may  act  as  a  check  upon  the  other,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent hasty  or  ill-considered  legislation.  We  shall  find 
many  other  examples  in  our  government  of  this  sys- 
tem of  "  checks  and  balances,"  whereby  one  branch 
of  the  government  has  powers  which  operate  as  a 
check  upon  some  other.^ 

Members  of  the  legislature  are  always  chosen  by 
popular  vote  from  small  districts  into  which  the  State 
is  divided  for  thispurpose.^  Thus  each  voter  Election  oi 
casts  his  ballot  only  for  the  members  from  ^e"^^®" 
his  own  district.  The  constitution  of  each  State  fixes 
the  qualifications  necessary  to  entitle  one  to  vote  for 
members  of  the  legislature,  and  for  other  officers  of 
government.  Male  citizens  who  have  reached  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years,  and  who  have  lived  in  the  State 
for  at  least  a  year,  are  generally  entitled  to  vote.  As 
a  rule,  a  person  qualified  to  vote  is  eligible  to  mem- 
bership in  the  legislature. 

In  two  thirds  of  the  States,  senators  are  elected  for 
four  years,  while  the  common  term  for  repre- 

,  .  ■*■  Tenn  and 

sentatives  is  two  years.    Members  of  each  compensa- 
branch  receive  the  same  compensation,  either 
a  small  annual  salary,  or  a  fixed  sum  for  each  day  the 
legislature  is  in  session. 

In  most  States,  regular  sessions  of  the  legislature 

^  For  example,  the  power  of  the  governor  to  veto  bills  is  a  check 
upon  the  legislature.  Again,  the  power  of  the  courts  to  declare  laws 
unconstitutional,  and  to  pass  upon  the  constitutionality  of  executive 
acts,  serves  as  a  check  upon  the  legislative  and  executive  departments. 

2  Every  ten  years,  after  the  census  is  taken,  the  State  legislature 
draws  new  district  lines.  The  State  is  divided  into  senatorial  districts, 
as  nearly  equal  in  population  as  possible;  and  into  a  larger  number  of 
representative  districts. 


122  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

are  held  once  in  two  years ;  but  special  sessions  may 

be  called  by  the  governor  in  case   of  emergency. 

In  order  to  prevent  too  much  lawmakinef. 

Sessions  ■*■  .         ,  .      . 

the  length  of  the  session  2s  often  limited  to 
forty,  sixty,  or  ninety  days.  The  legislature  meets  in 
the  capitol  or  Statehouse,  each  branch  having  its 
separate  chamber.  The  lieutenant-governor  ordinarily 
presides  over  the  senate,  while  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives elects  its  own  presiding  officer,  called  the 
speaker. 

127.  The  Process  of  making  Laws.  The  process  of 
legislation  is  similar  to  that  in  the  city  council,  and 
Committee  ^s  we  shall  scc  later,  resembles  that  in  Con- 
system  gress.  There  is  a  group  of  standing  com- 
mittees in  each  house,  appointed  by  the  presiding 
officer,  or  elected  by  the  members.  The  most  important 
committees  are  those  on  taxation  and  appropriations, 
education,  banking,  roads,  elections,  corporations, 
manufactures,  and  agriculture. 

A  bill  may  be  introduced  by  any  member ;  its  title 
is  read,  and  it  is  referred  to  the  standing  committee 
appointed  to  consider  legislation  on  this  sub- 
mentoi  ject.  If  unfavorable  to  the  measure,  the  com- 
mittee ordinarily  does  not  report  upon  it  at 
all ;  in  other  words,  the  bill  is  "  killed  in  committee." 
If  the  committee  approves  the  bill,  it  reports  the 
measure  back  to  the  house,  with  the  recommendation 
that  it  be  passed.  The  bill  then  receives  a  second  and 
a  third  reading,  is  discussed  and  perhaps  amended. 
Upon  being  put  to  vote,  a  roll-call  is  usually  taken  ; 
and  in  order  to  pass,  the  bill  must  receive  the  votes 
of  a  majority  of  the  members  voting. 


THE  STATE  GOVERNMENTS  123 

If  passed,  the  bill  is  signed  by  the  presiding  officer, 
and  sent  to  the  other  house.  Here  the  same  process 
is  repeated ;  and  if  the  other  branch  passes  the  meas- 
ure, it  is  sent  to  the  governor  for  his  consideration. 
If  the  other  house  makes  any  changes  or  alterations 
in  the  bill,  it  must  be  sent  back  to  the  house  where 
it  originated ;  and  that  body  must  agree  to  the  change 
before  the  bill  can  be  submitted  to  the  governor. 

The  governor  generally  has  a  period  of  ten  days 
to  decide  whether  he  will  sign  the  bill.^  His  signature 
makes  the  bill  a  law.  If  he  does  not  approve  Thegov- 
the  measure,  he  may  veto  it ;  that  is,  send  it  ©'nor'sveto 
back  to  the  house  in  which  it  originated,  with  his 
reasons  for  vetoing  it.^  The  bill  cannot  then  become 
a  law  unless  it  is  reconsidered  in  each  house,  and 
passed  "  over  the  veto  "  by  a  majority  of  two  thirds 
or  three  fourths  of  the  members. 

128.  Powers  of  the  State  Legislature.  The  lawmak- 
ing power  of  the  State  legislature  embraces  a  large 
number  of  subjects.  It  includes  such  import-  Manypow- 
ant  matters  as  the  making  and  enforcement  ®"  i^^ciuded 
of  contracts,  the  transfer  of  property,  marriage  and 
divorce,  the  punishment  of  crimes,  the  prevention 
of  disease,  the  general  control  of  education,  the  in- 
corporation and  government  of  cities,  taxation  and 
appropriations  for  State  purposes.  In  fact,  the  legis- 
lature may  pass  laws  upon  any  subject  not  prohib- 
ited by  the  State  or  the  national  constitution.  In 
view  of  these  broad  powers,  we  see  how  important  it 

^-  If  he  does  not  sign  or  return  it  within  this  period,  it  becomes  a  law 
without  his  signature. 

2  North  Carolina  is  the  only  State  where  the  governor  does  not  have 
the  veto  power. 


124  PKEPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

IS  to  choose  as  members  of  the  legislature  men  of 
honesty  and  ability,  who  will  legislate  with  a  single 
purpose  in  mind  —  the  best  interests  of  the  State. 

As  a  check  upon  the  powers  of  the  legislature,  and 
in  order  to  secure  laws  desired  by  the  people,  sev 
Direct  6^^1  constitutions  authorize  direct  legislation 
legislation  j^y  ^y^^  votcrs  themselvcs,  through  the  initia- 
tive and  referendum  (Sec.  30). 

129.  State  Executive  —  The  Governor.  The  chiet 
executive  officer  of  the  State  is  the  governor,  who 
Election  is  elected  by  the  voters,  generally  for  a 
and  term      ^q^,^  ^f  ^^^  qj,  f^^.  years.^  In  most  States, 

the  election  of  the  governor  and  other  State  officials 
is  held  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday 
in  November.  Vigorous  campaigns  are  waged  by  the 
political  parties  in  the  State  elections,  especially  in 
close  States;  so  that  this  election  is  second  in  import* 
ance  only  to  the  presidential  election. 

The  State  constitution  prescribes  the  qualifications 
for  governor.  As  a  rule,  he  must  be  at  least  twenty- 
five  years  of  age ;  he  must  have  been  a  citizen 
tionsand  of  the  United  States  for  five  years,  and  a 
resident  of  the  State  for  the  same  period.  The 
average  salary  of  the  governor  is  about  five  thousand 
dollars  a  year. 

130.  The  Governor's  Powers.  The  principal  duty 
of  the  governor  is  to  see  that  the  laws  of  the  State 
Executes  ^^^  faithfully  executed.  But  as  we  have  seen, 
state  laws  ^\^q  actual  execution  of  State  laws  is  entrusted 
largely  to  local  officials,  over  whom  the  governor  has 

^  In  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island  the  term  is  one  year;  twenty- 
two  other  States  have  a  term  of  four  years,  the  remainder  a  two-year 
term. 


THE  STATE  GOVERNMENTS  125 

little  or  no  control ;  hence  it  is  often  impossible  to 
hold  him  responsible  for  the  execution  of  the  laws. 
Like  the  mayor  in  many  cities,  his  actual  powers  are  not 
equal  to  his  responsibilities.  One  writer  has  compared 
the  governor  to  a  passenger  on  board  a  ship  navigated 
by  a  crew  which  he  does  not  select,  and  over  which  he 
has  few  powers  of  command. 

The  governor  has  the  power  to  appoint  many  minor 
State  officials,  usually  subject  to  confirmation  by  the 
Senate;  and  some  of  these  he  may  also  re-  Appoint- 
move.  A  few  commonwealths  ^  have  adopted  "^®^** 
the  merit  system  for  the  appointment  of  minor  State 
officials ;  but  in  most  States,  the  spoils  system  prevails. 
In  other  words,  the  successful  political  party  distrib- 
utes the  public  offices  among  faithful  party  workers 
(Sec.  119). 

The  governor  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  State 
militia,  and  may  call  them  out  to  protect  the  Military 
State,  or  any  local  community,  from  disorder,  p°^®'* 
riots,  or  insurrection.     In  extreme  cases  he  may  ask 
the  President  of  the  United  States  for  federal  troops 
(Sec.  43). 

The  most  important  powers  of  the  governor  are 
those  relating  to  lawmaking.  At  the  beginning  of 
each  session  of  the  legislature,  he  sends  to  Legisiauva 
that  body  a  message,  recommending  the  '°^®" 
changes  in  legislation  which  he  thinks  should  be 
made.  If  the  governor  is  a  man  of  considerable  tact 
and  ability,  he  may  influence  legislation  to  a  large 
degree.  He  has  power  to  summon  the  legislature  to 
meet  in  special  session  in  case  of  emergency;  and  he 

*  New  York,  Massachusetts,  and  Wisconsin. 


126  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

may  adjourn  it  if  the  two  houses  are  unable  to  agree 
upon  a  time  for  adjournment.  Most  important  of  all, 
he  may  veto  any  bill  passed  by  the  legislature ;  and 
only  in  rare  cases  will  it  be  possible  to  secure  the  large 
majority  necessary  to  pass  a  measure  over  his  veto. 

The  governor  usually  has  power  to  pardon  crimi 
nals  who  have  been  convicted  in  the  courts^  although 
Power  over  ^^  some  States  this  action  can  be  taken  only 
pardons  ^^  recommendation  of  a  board  of  pardons,  or 
of  the  executive  council.  In  rare  instances,  new  evi- 
dence is  discovered  after  the  trial,  which  shows  that 
the  convicted  man  is  in  fact  innocent.  More  often  the 
pardoning  power  is  used  in  cases  where  the  original 
penalty  seems  to  have  been  unduly  severe ;  or  where 
the  prisoner  appears  to  have  fully  expiated  his  offense, 
and  seems  deserving  of  his  freedom. 

131.  Other  Important  Executive  Officers.  Besides 
the  governor,  six  other  important  executive  officers 
are  usually  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  State.  Being 
chosen  in  this  way,  they  are  responsible  to  the  people, 
rather  than  to  the  governor;  so  that  he  can  exercise 
little  control  over  them. 

The  lieutenant-governor  ordinarily  presides  over 

the  senate,  and  succeeds  the  governor  in  case  of  the 

latter's  death,  resisrnation,  or  disability.  The 

(Alef  state  ,  .  . 

officials,  and  Secretary  of  State  is  the  chief  clerical  officer 
of  the  State  government.  He  keeps  the  offi^ 
cial  records,  publishes  the  laws  of  the  commonwealth^ 
and  takes  charge  of  election  returns.  The  auditor  or 
comptroller  supervises  the  financial  business  of  the 
State.  He  issues  warrants  to  the  treasurer,  instructing 
him  what  money  is  to  be  paid  by  the  latter  from  State 


THE  STATE   GOVERNMENTS  127 

jfunds.  The  attorney-general  is  the  legal  adviser  of 
the  governor  and  other  executive  officers,  and,  aided 
by  district  attorneys,  represents  the  commonwealth  in 
criminal  and  civil  cases  in  which  the  State  is  a  party. 
The  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  also  called 
the  commissioner  of  schools,  supervises  the  educa- 
tional interests  of  the  commonwealth  (Sec.  67). 

132.  Appointive  Officers  and  Commissions.  Besides 
these  principal  executive  officers,  there  are  many  less 
important  officials,  generally  appointed  by  Administra- 
the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the  senate.  *^^®  o«iciaia 
These  include  the  commissioner  of  agriculture,  the 
food  and  dairy  commissioner,  the  commissioner  of 
banking,  insurance  commissioner,  superintendent  of 
public  printing,  State  librarian,  factory  inspector,  fire 
marshal,  and  many  others. 

A  large  part  of  the  business  of  the  State  is  carried 
on  by  boards  or  commissions,  the  members  of  which 
are  usually  appointed  by  the  governor.  For 
example,  there  are  boards  of  agriculture,  of  oroommis- 
public  health,  of  charities  and  corrections, 
railway  commissions,  public  utilities  commissions,  and 
boards  of  trustees  for  the  numerous  State  institutions 
(State  university,  and  asylums  for  the  blind,  the  deaf, 
and  the  insane). 

These  boards  act  under  the  authority  conferred  by 
the  legislature,  and  the  governor  exercises  little  con- 
trol over  them.  Some  of  them  have  important  powers. 
For  example,  the  State  railway  commission  is  some- 
times authorized  to  regulate  the  charges  of  railways 
for  the  transportation  of  passengers  and  freight.  The 
public  utilities  commission  regulates  the  charges  made 


128  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

by  corporations  which  furnish  such  public  utilities  as 
telephone  service,  gas,  and  electric  lighting. 

133.  The  Judicial  System.  Courts  are  tribunals  for 
the  administration  of  justice ;  they  decide  upon  the 
Courts  exist  meaning  of  the  law,  and  its  application  to  in- 
incuviduai  dividual  cases.  Our  courts  are  the  great  bul- 
rights  wark  for  the  protection  of  individual  rights ; 
for  they  afford  redress  to  persons  who  have  been  in- 
jured by  the  unlawful  acts  of  others.  If  the  wrongful 
act  is  one  that  affects  the  general  public  as  well  as  the 
person  directly  injured,  it  is  considered  a  public  wrong 
or  crime.  For  example,  murder,  burglary,  and  arson 
are  crimes,  and  will  be  redressed  by  government  in  a 
criminal  proceeding.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  wrong 
is  one  which  chiefly  concerns  the  individual,  and  af- 
fects the  public  only  indirectly,  the  injured  party 
must  himself  seek  redress  through  a  civil  suit.  An 
example  of  such  a  private  wrong  would  be  the  failure 
of  one  person  to  carry  out  a  contract  which  he  had 
agreed  with  another  to  perform. 

134.  Procedure  in  Civil  Cases.  The  person  who 
seeks  redress  for  a  private  wrong  by  bringing  suit 

against  another  is  called  the  plaintiff;  the 
suits  are      party  asrainst  whom  the  suit  is  brought  is  the 

defendant.  Through  his  attorney,  the  plain- 
tiff files  in  the  court  a  statement  of  the  grounds  of 
his  suit,  this  being  known  as  his  declaration,  petition, 
or  complaint.  The  defendant  then  files  his  reply  or 
answer,  setting  forth  any  defense  which  he  has  against 
the  charges  made  by  the  plaintiff.  The  suit  will  then 
be  tried  by  the  judge ;  or  in  some  cases,  by  the  judge 
and  jury.  Evidence  is  presented  first  by  the  plaintiff, 


THE  STATE   GOVERNMENTS  129 

then  by  the  defendant.  Witnesses  are  called  by  each 
side,  who  give  their  sworn  testimony,  and  are  cross- 
examined  by  the  opposing  attorney.  The  attorneys 
then  argue  the  case.  If  it  is  being  tried  before  a  jury, 
the  judge  instructs  the  members  on  the  points  of  law 
involved ;  for  the  jury  decides  only  questions  of  fact. 
The  jury  then  retires  for  deliberation,  and  endeavors 
to  arrive  at  a  verdict;  that  is,  to  decide  whether  the 
plaintiff  has  proved  the  claims  made  in  his  petition. 
If  the  verdict  is  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff,  the  judge 
issues  an  order  or  judgment,  directing  the  defendant 
to  pay  the  damages  awarded  by  the  jury.  If  the 
money  is  not  paid,  the  sheriff  will  take  possession  of 
the. defendant's  property,  and  sell  enough  of  it  to 
satisfy  the  judgment  of  the  court. 

135.  Procedure  in  Criminal  Cases.  If  n  crime  has 
been  committed,  government  itself  acts  as  tlie  plaintiff. 
The  proceeding  commences  with  the  arrest  warrant 
of  the  accused  person  upon  a  warrant  issued  "^'i  arrest 
by  the  proper  magistrate.^  In  case  of  petty  offenses 
or  misdemeanors,  the  accused  will  be  at  0)ice  tried  in 
the  police  or  justices'  court.  If  found  guilty,  judg- 
ment will  be  rendered  and  a  penalty  imposed;  if  in- 
nocent, the  prisoner  will  be  immediately  discharged. 

But  if  the  offense  is  a  felony,  that  is,  one  punishable 
by  death  or  imprisonment  in  the  State  penitentiary, 
the  accused  ordinarily  cannot  be  put  on  trial 
unless  the  grand  jury  finds   sufficient  evi- 
dence against  him  to  warrant  this  action.   The  grand 

1  An  arrest  may  be  made  without  warrant  (1)  by  a  police  officer 
on  suspicion ;  or  (2)  by  an  officer  or  private  individual,  if  a  crime  is 
being  committed  in  bis  presence. 


ISO  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

jury  is  a  body  of  from  twelve  to  twenty-three  men, 
chosen  from  the  people  of  the  county  for  the  purpose 
of  investigating  serious  offenses  which  have  been  com- 
mitted. If  a  majority  of  the  grand  jury  believes  that 
the  accused  should  be  held  for  trial,  it  returns  an 
indictment,  or  iormal  accusation  against  him.  Pending 
the  action  of  the  grand  jury,  and  until  his  trial  begins, 
the  suspected  person  is  held  in  jail,  unless  he  can  fur- 
nish bail  or  security  that  he  will  appear  for  trial. 

The  trial  is  begun  by  reading  in  court  the  charge 
or  indictment,  whereupon  the  prisoner  is  asked  to 
plead  guilty  or  not  guilty.  Twelve  men  sat- 
isfactory to  both  sides  are  selected  as  a  jury, 
and  are  sworn  to  try  impartially  the  case  between  the 
government  as  a  prosecutor  and  the  defendant.  From 
this  point  on,  the  procedure  resembles  that  in  civil 
cases,  and  consists  of  the  introduction  of  evidence, 
the  arguments  of  counsel,  the  instruction  of  the  judge, 
the  deliberation  and  verdict  of  the  jury,  and  the 
judgment  of  the  court. 

The  verdict  of  the  jury  must  be  unanimous ;  and 
if  they  are  unable  to  agree,  a  new  trial  will  be  ordered. 
If  the  verdict  is  "not  guilty,"  the  prisoner  is  at  once 
discharged,  and  cannot  be  again  tried  for  the  same 
offense.  If  found  guilty,  the  defendant's  attorney 
may  take  the  case  to  a  higher  court,  where  the  points 
of  law  involved  in  the  case  will  be  reviewed. 

The  State  constitutions  contain  numerous  provis- 
ions which  safeguard  the  rights  of  a  person  accused 
of  crime.    He  is   entitled  to  reasonable  bail,^  to  a 

^  Except  for  capital  offenses  where  gailt  is  evideut,  or  the  presump' 
tion  great. 


THE  STATE  GOVERNMENTS  ISl 

speedy  public  trial  before  an  impartial  jury,  and  to 
counsel  for  his  defense.    He  may  testify  in  his  own 
behalf,  but  cannot  be  compelled  to  take  the  ^^^^^^^^ 
stand  unless  he  chooses  to  do  so ;  the  court  tionai 
will  compel  the  attendance  of  witnesses  whose  lor  accused 
testimony  he  desires;   persons  who  testify  ^"^*^ 
against  him  must  do  so  in  his  presence.    He  is  pre- 
sumed to  be  innocent  until  he  is  proven  guilty ;  and 
his  guilt  must  be  proven  beyond  a  reasonable  doubt, 
otherwise  the  jury  will  be  instructed  to  render  a  ver- 
dict of  acquittal. 

136.  The  System  of  State  Courts.  Most  civil  and 
criminal  cases  arising  in  the  United  States  are  tried 
in  the  State  courts,  which  usually  comprise  Three 
three  grades :  (1)  inferior  courts,  or  those  of  *^**'* 
lowest  grades ;  (2)  intermediate  courts,  or  those  with 
general  power  to  try  most  cases ;  and  (3)  supreme 
courts,  or  those  of  last  resort. 

The  courts  of  lowest  grade  include  those  presided 
over  by  justices  of  the  peace  in  rural  districts,  and 
the  police  and  other  municipal  courts  in  the  inferior 
cities.  These  courts  are  established  in  every  °°"^ 
local  community,  each  township  having  its  justice  of 
the  peace,  and  each  city  its  municipal  and  police 
courts.  In  them  are  tried  petty  offenses  against  law 
and  order,  and  disputes  over  property  or  contracts 
which  involve  only  a  small  amount  of  money. 

The  intermediate  or  county  courts  are  the  ordinary 
tribunals  for  the  trial  of  civil  and  criminal  cases. 
Parties  who  are  not  satisfied  with  the  judg-  intermedi- 
ment  of  the  inferior  courts  usually  may  carry  **®  courts 
their  cases  up  to  the  county  court  for  decision  by  a 


1S2  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

higher  authority.  The  county  courts  also  try  for  the 
first  time  the  great  number  of  cases  which  are  too  im- 
portant to  be  heard  by  inferior  courts. 

The  third  and  highest  State  court  is  the  supreme 
court,  which  meets  at  the  State  capital.  It  consists  o!: 
Thesu-  from  three  to  nine  judges,  whereas  one  judge 
preme  court  presides  over  the  lower  courts.  Cases  of  suffi- 
cient importance  may  be  carried  up  to  the  supreme 
court  for  final  decision ;  ^  and  some  very  important 
cases  may  be  tried  there  in  the  first  instance,  without 
being  taken  through  the  lower  courts. 

The  supreme  court  has  the  important  power  of  de- 
ciding whether  a  law  passed  by  the  legislature  is  in 
accordance  with  the  State  constitution.  If  it 
tionauty  of  finds  that  this  is  not  the  case,  it  declares  the 
^*  law  unconstitutional,  or  of  no  effect ;  for  the 

constitution  is  the  supreme  law  of  the  State,  and  what- 
ever conflicts  with  it  is  null  and  void. 

In  addition  to  the  three  grades  of  courts  described, 
Special  many  States  have  a  special  court  in  each 
®°^*  county,  called  the  probate  or  surrogate's 
court.  This  tribunal  has  jurisdiction  over  the  prob- 
ate of  wills,  the  appointment  of  administrators  and 
guardians,  and  the  care  of  the  estates  o±  wards. 

137.  Judges  of  State  Courts.    The  judges  of  the 

lower  courts  are  elected  by  the  voters  in  each  local 

community,  for  a  term  varying:  from  two  to 

Selection  jo 

term,  and     four  ycars.    Supreme  court  justices  are  gen- 
erally elected  by  the  voters  of  the  entire 
State,  and  serve  for  a  term  which  averages  about 

1  In  exceptional  cases  (where  a  national  law,  treaty,  or  the  national 
eonstitiition  is  involved),  the  decisions  of  the  State  supreme  court  may 
be  reviewed  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 


THE  STATE   GOVERNMENTS  1311 

eight  years. ^  Salaries  are  small  in  comparison  with 
the  income  of  prominent  attorneys,  so  that  the  honor 
of  the  ofBce  is  chiefly  relied  on  to  secure  judges  of 
ability. 

No  office  in  our  government  is  of  greater  importance 
than  the  judiciary.  If  judges  are  ignorant  or  corrupt, 
our  whole  plan  of  government  fails ;  for  the 
courts  have  final  decision  upon  the  meaning  of  judicial 
of  the  laws,  and  upon  all  questions  of  indi- 
vidual rights.    If  men  feel  that  they  cannot  obtain 
justice  in  the  courts,  disorder  and  revolution  are  almost 
certain  to  follow. 

It  is  customary  to  elect  judges  on  party  tickets,  as 
the  other  State  officers  are  chosen.  This  practice  is 
unfortunate,  for  the  judge  should  not  owe  his  nomina- 
tion or  election  to  any  political  party.  We  have  had 
instances  in  our  history  where  a  corrupt  party  machine 
has  controlled  judges,  and  compelled  them  to  do  its 
bidding.  This  would  not  have  occurred  had  the  judges 
owed  their  election  to  the  people,  rather  than  to  a  party 
faction.  But  as  a  rule,  our  judges  have  refused  to  be 
controlled  by  parties  or  individuals.  Generally  they 
have  set  a  high  standard  of  that  impartial,  fearless, 
and  upright  conduct  which  must  characterize  the 
judiciary,  unless  our  government  is  to  be  a  failure. 

*  In  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  and  Rhode  Island,  snprem* 
court  justices  are  appointed  for  life  ;  elsewhere  the  term  ranges  from 
two  years  in  Vermont  to  twenty-one  years  in  Pennsylvania. 


1S4  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 


QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  When,  by  whom,  and  under  what  circumstances  was  the  con- 
stitution of  your  State  made  ? 

2.  Was  it  ratified  by  popular  vote?  Why  should  the  people  vote 
upon  this  question? 

3.  How  many  constitutions  has  your  State  had  in  all  ?  Has  any 
proposed  constitution  ever  been  rejected  by  the  voters  ? 

4.  How  many  amendments  have  been  added  to  your  State  con- 
stitution ? 

6.  Describe  in  detail  the  method  by  which  your  State  constitu- 
tion may  be  amended,  giving  (a)  the  method  of  proposing 
amendments,  and  (b)  the  method  of  ratification. 

6.  What  is  the  official  name  of  your  State  leg^islature  ?  Of  each 
house?  How  many  members  in  each  house?  What  are  the 
qualifications  for  membership  ? 

7.  For  what  term  are  members  of  your  legislature  chosen  ? 
What  salary  do  they  receive  ?  Is  the  senate  a  continuoui 
body? 

8.  Does  your  district  frequently  return  the  same  members  to  the 
legislature,  or  is  rotation  in  office  customary?  Who  are  the 
present  members  from  your  district?  To  which  political  party 
do  they  belong  ?  Which  party  has  a  majority  in  your  legis- 
lature ? 

9.  How  often  does  your  legislature  meet  ?  Is  the  length  of  tha 
session  limited  by  the  constitution  ? 

10.  How  many  committees  in  each  branch  of  your  legislature  ? 
Name  the  most  important  ones. 

11.  Organize  your  class  into  a  house  of  the  State  legislature,  and 
draw  up  and  pass  a  bill  in  due  form.  (If  possible  obtain  the 
assistance  of  your  local  representative.) 

12.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  subjects  with  which  your  State  legis- 
lature may  deal.  Compare  this  with  the  list  of  subjects  over 
which  a  city  council  or  town-meeting  has  authority. 

13.  Give  the  term,  qualifications,  and  salary  of  the  governor  of 
your  State. 

14.  Is  the  governor  of  your  State  eligible  for  a  succeeding  term  ? 
If  so,  is  reelection  customary? 

15.  Are  candidates  for  governor  in  your  State  nominated  at 
primaries  or  by  conventions  ?  When  does  the  State  election 
occur  ? 

16.  What  officers  may  your  governor  appoint  ?  Is  the  consent  of 
the  Senate  necessary? 


THE  STATE   GOVERNMENTS  IM 

17.  Examine  the  provisions  of  your  State  constitution  concerning 
the  governor's  legislative  powers,  including  his  power  (a)  to 
convene  the  legislature  in  extra  session,  and  to  adjourn  it  under 
certain  conditions  ;  {b)  to  recommend  legislation  ;  (c)  to  veto 
legislative  acts. 

18.  How  may  the  governor's  veto  be  overcome  in  your  State  ? 

19.  Has  the  governor  of  your  State  had  occasion  to  call  out  the 
militia  within  recent  years  ?  If  so,  under  what  circumstances  ? 

20.  Who  would  succeed  the  governor  in  the  event  of  a  vacancy 
in  this  office  ? 

21.  In  most  commonwealths  the  seven  principal  executive  offi- 
cers are  the  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  secretary  of  State, 
treasurer,  auditor  or  comptroller,  attorney-general,  and  super- 
intendent of  education.  Prepare  an  outline  giving  the  follow- 
ing facts  concerning  each  of  these  officers  in  your  State  :  how 
chosen,  term,  qualifications,  salary,  duties,  how  removed. 

22.  Name  the  several  grades  of  courts  in  your  State,  beginning 
with  the  lowest. 

23.  Do  you  favor  appointment  or  election  of  judges  ?  Short  or 
long  terms  ?  Give  reasons. 

24.  Describe  the  kind  of  man  who  you  think  would  make  a  good 
judge. 

25.  What  are  the  advantages  and  defects  of  trial  by  jury  ? 

26.  In  your  community  what  court  has  jurisdiction  over  misde* 
meanors  ?  Over  felonies  ? 

27.  Describe  the  first  steps  in  a  criminal  action  under  the  laws  of 
your  commonwealth  ? 

28.  How  is  the  grand  jury  chosen  ?  Of  how  many  men  does  it 
consist  ?  What  does  it  do  ? 

29.  Explain  the  importance  of  jury  trial  to  one  accused  of 
crime. 

dO.  Giye  arguments  for  and  against  capital  punishment. 


CHAPTER  XII 

HOW  THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT  ARE  MET 

138.  How  Government  pays  its  Bills.  In  previous 
ehapters  we  have  seen  the  important  services  which 
ooveniment  government  performs  to  aid  the  individual 
*o"thro*ugi*^"d  to  promote  the  public  welfare.  These 
uxes  services  involve  vast  expenditures,  and  the 
cost  must  come,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the 
pockets  of  the  citizens.  It  comes  from  the  wages  of 
the  poorest  laborer,  as  well  as  from  the  income  of  the 
capitalist ;  from  the  earnings  of  the  professional  and 
business  man,  from  the  salaries  of  those  who  are  em- 
ployed, from  the  income  of  all  the  people.  It  is  paid 
by  means  of  taxes,  which  may  be  defined  as  compul- 
sory contributions  of  wealth  levied  upon  individuals 
in  order  to  meet  the  expenses  of  government. 

139.  Need  of  Honesty  and  Economy  in  Government 
Expenditures.  Everyone  is  eager  to  have  his  share  of 
the  services  which  government  provides  —  the  public 
oostoidis-  schools,  the  libraries  and  parks,  the  streets 
Sorafby  ^^^^  highways,  the  protection  of  the  police 
taxpayers  ^j^^j  firemen;  but  as  a  rule,  men  are  not  so 
easier  to  contribute  their  share  toward  the  cost  of 
providing  these  services.  People  usually  grumble  a 
good  deal  about  taxes,  and  pay  them  grudgingly; 
but  they  have  no  real  cause  for  complaint  provided 
government  performs  it  work  with  economy  and  ef- 
ficiency. But  if  public  money  is  wasted,  the  taxpayers 


EXPENSES  OF   GOVERNMENT  18T 

have  a  right  to  object.  If  dishonest  contractors  do 
poor  work  for  the  city,  and  incompetent  city  of&cials 
accept  and  pay  for  this  work,  the  entire  community 
is  being  cheated.  Hence  all  government  expenditures 
should  be  carefully  scrutinized;  public  contracts 
should  be  let  to  the  lowest  bidder  who  will  do  the 
work  well;  honest  and  competent  men  should  be 
chosen  for  the  management  of  the  city's  business,  so 
that  it  may  be  carried  on  with  the  same  efiiciency 
that  successful  private  enterprises  are  managed.  If 
this  is  not  done,  the  taxpayers  have  only  themselves 
to  blame;  for  ours  is  a  representative  government, 
and  the  people  are  responsible  for  the  character  of 
the  men  who  hold  public  office. 

140.  Taxes  must  be  authorized  by  the  People.  Our 
forefathers  waged  a  successful  revolution  to  estab- 
lish the  principle  that  taxation  and  repre-  cause  oit]» 
sentation  must  go  hand  in  hand ;  for  other-  ^^oiuSn 
wise  taxation  is  oppression.  The  taxes  which 
Great  Britain  levied  on  her  colonies  in  America  were 
not  heavy  or  burdensome ;  but  the  colonists  consid- 
ered them  unjust  because  they  were  not  represented 
in  the  British  parliament.  The  principle  that  taxes 
shall  be  levied  only  with  the  consent  of  the  people, 
given  through  their  representatives,  is  older  than  the 
American  Revolution.  It  dates  back  to  Runny mede, 
where  the  victorious  barons  compelled  King  John  td 
recognize,  as  a  fundamental  principle  of  English  lib- 
erty, that  taxes  may  be  levied  only  with  the  consent 
of  Parliament.^ 

'  Magna  Charta,  or  The  Great  Charter,  signed  by  King  John  m 
L215,  was  the  first  great  Bill  of  Rights  in  English  history. 


138  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

Upon  this  principle  of  taxation  by  the  people  oui 
government  was  founded.  Our  national  constitution 

authorizes  Congress  to  levy  taxes,  but  pro- 
andrepre-    vides  that  all  biUs  for  raising  revenue  shall 

originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives, 
which  is  chosen  directly  by  the  people.  The  same 
principle  prevails  in  our  State  and  local  governments. 
State  taxes  are  levied  by  the  State  legislature,  local 
taxes  by  city  councils  and  county  commissioners,  all 
elected  directly  by  the  people.  Thus  in  our  national, 
State,  and  local  governments,  the  power  to  tax  is 
lodged  with  the  representatives  of  the  people;  in 
other  words,  the  people  tax  themselves. 

141.  Evasion  of  Taxes.  Hence  a  man  who  tries  to 
evade  his  taxes  is  not  cheating  that  intangible  thing 

which  we  call  government ;  he  is  really  cheat- 
oheatthe      ing  his  neighbors  and  fellow  citizens.  He  is 

accepting  the  benefits  of  community  life 
while  seeking  to  avoid  its  burdens.  If  a  number  of 
boys  should  club  together  to  build  a  tennis  court, 
and  then,  after  it  is  built,  two  or  three  of  them 
should  refuse  to  contribute  their  share,  you  would  at 
once  say  that  these  boys  ought  not  to  play  on  the 
tennis  court.  In  the  same  position  is  the  man  who 
accepts  the  benefits  of  government,  and  then  tries  to 
evade  his  share  of  the  cost. 

142.  Taxes  proportioned  to  Abilityto  pay  them.  How 

much  taxes  oue^ht  each  individual  to  pay  ? 
are  taxed  This  depends  upon  how  much  wealth  a  man 
to  their  ^  has,  for  you  will  readily  agree  that  a  man 
property  ^j^ose  iucomc  is  $1000  a  year  ought  not  to 
pay  as  large  a  tax  as  one  whose  income  is  $10,000, 


EXPENSES  OF   GOVERNMENT  1S9 

In  every  case,  taxes  should  be  levied  in  proportion  to 
the  individual's  ability  to  pay  them  ;  and  the  measure 
of  this  ability  is  the  amount  of  property  that  he  owns. 

143.  Purposes    for   which    Governments    eicpend 
Money.  The  total  amount  raised  by  taxation  for  our 
national,  State,  and  local  governments  is  over 
two  billion  dollars  each  year.    Of  this  im-  state,  and 
mense  sum,  the  national  government  expends 
about  thirty-five  per  cent ;  the  State  governments,  ten 
per  cent ;  while  local  expenditures,  or  those  of  cities, 
counties,  and  townships,  comprise  about  fifty-five  per 
cent  of  the  total. 

Of  the  federal  expenditures,  about  seventy  per  cent 
are  for  military  purposes;  that  is,  they  are  due  to  the 
cost  of  the  army,  navy,  and  pensions.  Pen-  National  ex- 
sions  are  classed  as  military  expenditures  be-  p6"<i"^«* 
cause  they  are  occasioned  by  past  wars ;  while  the 
expenditures  for  the  army  and  navy  represent  prepa- 
ration for  possible  wars.  Thus  of  every  dollar  that  the 
national  government  takes  from  the  citizens  in  taxes, 
seventy-two  cents  are  expended  for  war,  or  prepa- 
ration for  war.  This  immense  burden  upon  taxpayers 
is  one  of  the  strongest  arguments  in  favor  of  inter- 
national arbitration  as  a  substitute  for  war  in  settling 
disputes  among  nations. 

The  principal  expenditures  of  State  governments 
are  for  the  maintenance  of  the  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial  departments  ;  for  educational,  Expendi- 
charitable,  and  penal  institutions  (as  State  g^^ego^. 
universities,  asylums  for  the  blind,  the  insane  eniments 
and  feeble-minded,  and  prisons) ;  for  State  buildings 
and  public  works ;  and  for  interest  on  the  public  debt 


140  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

Local  governments  bear  the  heavy  expense  of  schools 
and  libraries,  poor  relief,  roads  and  bridges  ;  while  in 
locales-  addition,  cities  expend  large  sums  for  police 
penditures  g^^ J  ^^.^  protection,  for  the  construction  of 
waterworks,  street  paving  and  sewers,  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  public  parks  and  playgrounds. 

144.  Classification  of  Taxes.  We  have  seen  that 
taxes  are  compulsory  contributions  levied  in  order  to 

defray  the  expenses  of  government.  They 
may  be  classified  as  direct  and  indirect.  Di- 
rect taxes  are  those  which  are  levied  immediately  and 
directly  upon  the  persons  who  are  to  bear  the  burden 
of  the  tax.  For  example,  a  tax  on  land  or  on  house- 
hold belongings  is  a  direct  tax,  since  it  is  borne  by 
the  person  against  whom  the  tax  is  assessed.  Other 
examples  of  direct  taxes  are  poll  taxes,  corporation 
fcaxes,  and  taxes  upon  inheritances  and  incomes.  Di- 
rect taxes  form  the  chief  source  of  income  for  our 
State  and  local  governments. 

Indirect  taxes  are  those  levied  upon  commodities 
before  they  reach  the  consumer.  The  man  who  pays 
laflireot  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^®  ^''st  instance  is  not  the  tax 
*****  bearer,  since  the  tax  is  ultimately  paid  by  the 

consumer  in  the  form  of  a  higher  price.  For  example, 
«  tax  on  goods  imported  from  abroad  is  first  paid  by 
the  importer ;  but  he  adds  the  amount  of  the  tax  to 
tke  price  of  the  goods,  so  that  the  consumer  who  af- 
terwards purchases  the  goods  pays  the  tax.  From  in* 
direct  taxes  (customs  duties  and  excises),  the  national 
government  derives  nearly  all  its  revenue. 

145.  The  General  Property  Tax.  The  most  import- 
ant tax  levied  by  the  State  and  local  governments  is 


EXPENSES  OF   GOVERNMENT  141 

the  general  property  tax,  which  furnishes  about  three 
fourths  of  their  total  revenues.  This  tax  is  Levied  on 
levied  upon  real  estate,  consisting  of  lands  "rsonai 
and  buildings;  and  upon  personal  property^  property 
including  furniture,  jewelry,  money,  bonds,  stocks, and 
other  forms  of  movable  property.  It  is  called  a  gen- 
eral property  tax,  because  in  theory  it  is  levied  upon 
all  the  property,  real  and  personal,  belonging  to  the 
residents  of  the  community.  In  practice,  the  largest 
and  most  valuable  portion  of  personal  property  es- 
capes this  tax ;  for  notes,  stocks,  bonds,  and  other 
forms  of  credit  can  be  readily  concealed  from  the 
assessor.  Probably  less  than  one  fifth  of  the  entire 
amount  of  personal  property  is  reached  under  the 
general  property  tax  ;  and  many  States  now  endeavor 
to  tax  this  form  of  wealth  by  other  means,  as  we  shall 
see. 

146.  Assessment.  Before  the  general  property  tax 
can  be  levied,  an  assessment  or  valuation  must  be 
made  of  all  the  property  within  the  commun- 

,  11  1  1     ^^^  asses- 

ity,  SO  that  each  person  may  be  taxed  accord-  sorsand 
ing  to  the  value  of  the  property  that  he 
owns.  A  local  tax  assessor  is  usually  elected  in  each 
rural  township  or  city  ward.  This  official  inspects  the 
property  of  each  person  in  his  district,  and  assesses 
its  value.  To  aid  in  this  work  of  assessment,  each  tax- 
payer may  be  required  to  make  out,  under  oath,  a 
written  inventory  or  declaration  of  all  his  taxable 
property,  and  its  value. 

147.  Equalization.  The  actual  or  market  value  of 
property  is  a  difficult  matter  to  determine ;  hence  the 
valuations  of  local  assessors  may  vary  widely,  even  in 


I4f  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

the  same  county.  One  assessor  may  place  a  high  val- 
uation upon  the  property  of  his  district^ 
boards  of  another  may  assess  property  at  only  one  half 
or  two  thirds  of  its  real  value.  Or  the  same 
assessor  may  place  too  high  a  valuation  upon  one  man's 
property  as  compared  with  that  of  his  neighbor.  This 
would  work  injustice,  for  some  persons  would  then 
pay  more,  others  less,  than  their  share  of  taxes.  To 
correct  these  inequalities,  there  is  a  county  board  of 
equalization  in  each  county,  which  reviews  and  cor- 
rects the  work  of  the  local  assessors.  Individuals  who 
believe  that  their  property  has  been  unfairly  assessed 
may  appear  before  this  board,  and  ask  to  have  the 
assessment  corrected. 

In  order  that  each  county  may  bear  its  fair  burden 
of  State  taxes,  a  State  board  of  equalization 

state  boards   .  .  .  .  ^  . 

oieauauza-  is  appointed,  which  reviews  and  adjusts  the 
valuations  fixed  by  the  county  boards. 
148.  How  the  General  Property  Tax  is  levied  in 

Cities.  Let  us  suppose  that  all  the  property  of  the 
city  has  been  assessed,  and  that  the  city  coun- 

nxlngtho  -^  •11  P 

rateoitaxa-  cil  has  determined  the  amount  or  money 
needed  to  run  the  government  during  the 
ensuing  year.  The  next  step  is  to  fix  the  rate  of  taxa- 
tion ;  that  is,  to  ascertain  the  per  cent  of  taxes  which 
must  be  levied  upon  each  dollar's  worth  of  taxable 
property.  This  is  found  by  dividing  the  amount  of 
money  to  be  raised  by  the  total  assessed  value  of 
property  within  the  city.  For  example,  if  the  total 
assessment  in  a  city  is  $200,000,000,  and  the  ex- 
penditures of  the  city  government  are  estimated  at 
$1,000,000,  the  rate  of  taxation  will  be  $1,000,000 


EXPENSES  OF   GOVERNMENT  14S 

divided  by  $200,000,000,  which  gives  .01,  or  one  per 
cent.^  Hence  the  taxpayer  who  owns  property  as- 
sessed at  $5,000  must  contribute  one  per  cent  of  that 
sum,  or  fifty  dollars,  toward  the  expenses  of  the  city 
government. 

The  amount  of  revenue  to  be  levied  for  county 
purposes  is  fixed  by  the  county  commissioners,  that 
for  State  purposes  by  the  State  legislature,  how  county 
The  rates  for  county  and  for  State  purposes  J^^f^J 
are  then  determined  by  dividing  the  amount  ^^^ 
of  revenue  needed  by  the  total  assessment  of  property 
within  the  county,  or  within  the  State,  as  the  case 
may  be. 

Accordingly,  the  city  property  owner  pays  his  city 
tax  rate,  plus  the  county  rate,  plus  the  State  rate.  He 
pays  the  entire  tax  to  the  county  treasurer,^  usually  in 
two  installments.  This  official  then  distributes  to  the 
city  and  State  treasurers  their  share  of  the  funds. 

Taxes  not  paid  before  a  certain  time  become  delin- 
quent, and  a  penalty  of  from  five  to  fifteen  Deiiaiiuiiit 
per  cent,  besides  interest,  is  added  to  the  *"*■ 
amount  of  the  tax.  If  the  tax  continues  unpaid,  the 
property  may  be  sold  by  the  sheriff  to  satisfy  the 
claim. 

Some  kinds  of  property  are  exempt  from  taxation. 
For  example,  no  tax  is  levied  on  school  buildings,  the 
courthouse,  or  other  property  which  belongs  Exempted 
to  the  public.  Hospitals  and  other  charitable  p"p®^ 
institutions,  and  churches,  are  likewise  exempt,  being 

^  On  the  tax  bill  sent  to  each  taxpayer,  the  rate  is  generally  expressed 
in  mills.  For  example,  the  rate  of  one  per  cent  would  be  ten  mills  on 
each  dollar's  worth  of  taxable  property.  * 

•  Or  to  the  city  treasurer,  as  the  case  may  be. 


144  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

organized  not  for  profit,  but  to  do  work  which  is  of 
general  public  benefit. 

A  small  amount  of  personal  property  (usually  a 
few  hundred  dollars)  is  exempt  for  each  individual, 
so  that  persons  who  own  very  little  property  shall 
not  be  taxed  on  their  few  belongings. 

149.  Corporation  or  Business  Taxes.  Several  States 
derive  a  large  part  of  their  revenue  from  taxes  on 

corporations,  the  chartered  companies  which 

How  levied  ,       p  i        •  n  a 

carry  on  most  01  our  business  nowadays.  As 
a  rule,  the  general  property  tax  does  not  reach  the 
shares  of  stock  owned  by  individuals  in  a  corporation ; 
but  this  same  wealth  can  be  reached  by  a  tax  levied 
directly  upon  the  corporation,  based  upon  its  capital 
stock  or  its  annual  earnings.  Bank  deposits,  for 
example,  can  be  reached  by  means  of  a  tax  levied 
against  the  bank  as  a  corporation  ;  whereas  most  in- 
dividual depositors  fail  to  include  bank  accounts  in 
the  declaration  of  their  taxable  property. 

150.  Licenses.  Local  governments,  especially  in 
cities,  derive  a  large  amount  of  revenue  from  licenses 
paid  by  saloon  keepers,  peddlers,  and  pawnbrokers. 
These  licenses  are  generally  intended  to  restrict  busi- 
ness which  is  considered  undesirable,  as  in  the  case 
of  saloons ;  and  at  the  same  time  to  secure  a  revenue 
for  the  city  government.  Other  licenses  are  required 
solely  for  the  sake  of  revenue,  as  those  paid  by  owners 
of  automobiles,  carriages,  and  bicycles. 

i5i.  Pell  or  Capitation  Taxes.  A  number  of  com- 
monwealths still  retain  the  antiquated  and 
unjust  poll  or  capitation  tax,  which  is  a  tax  of 
two  or  three  dollars  a  head,  levied  upon  all  male  citi- 


EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT  145 

zens  over  twenty-one  years  of  age.  This  tax  is  unjust 
because  it  requires  every  man,  rich  or  poor,  to  pay 
the  same  amount,  thus  ignoring  the  question  of  the 
taxpayer's  ability  to  pay. 

152.  Inheritance  Taxes.  About  three  fourths  of  the 
States,  as  well  as  our  national  government,  levy  in- 
heritance taxes.  The  rate  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  the  bequest,  small  sums  being  exempt  or  taxed  at 
a  very  lowr  rate,  while  large  bequests  pay  a  higher 
rate.  Generally  the  rate  is  lower  for  a  bequest  to  a 
wife  or  children  than  for  one  made  to  distant  relatives, 
or  to  persons  who  are  not  related  by  blood  to  the 
deceased. 

153.  Revenues  from  Municipal  Monopolies.  City 
governments  which  own  waterworks,  or  electric  light 
plants,  derive  a  revenue  from  these  enterprises  Business 
through  fees  or  charges  collected  from  the  Jf^^gJ'^em- 
users.  As  a  rule,  the  net  profit  from  these  ^®^*s 
industries  is  small,  the  policy  being  to  make  the  rates 
only  slightly  higher  than  the  cost  of  the  service.  These 
fees  are  not  taxes,  since  they  are  not  levied  upon  all 
owners  of  property.  They  are  charges  which  govern- 
ment, as  a  business  concern,  makes  to  individuals  for 
Special  services  supplied  to  them.^ 

154.  Special  Assessments.  When  the  city  paves  a 
street,  or  builds  a  sewer  system,  it  is  customary  to 
charge  all  or  a  large  part  of  the  cost  to  the  owners 
of  property  on  each  side  of  the  street.  These  "  special 
assessments  "  are  levied  on  the  theory  that  the  adjoin- 

^  Other  examples  of  government  fees  are  those  required  for  record- 
ing deeds  and  mortgages,  court  fees,  and  fees  for  marriage  licenses.  In 
all  these  cases,  a  special  service  is  performed  by  government  for  the 
individual  who  pays  the  fee. 


146  PREPARING   FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

ing  property  receives  most  of  the  benefit  of  the  im- 
provement, and  that  it  should  therefore  bear  most  of 
the  expense. 

155.  Taxation  by  the  National  Government  —  Cus- 
toms Duties.  The  national  government  derives  a  eon- 
„^  ,  siderable  part  of  its  revenues  from  customs  or 

toms  duties  import  duties,  which  are  taxes  levied  on  goods 
brought  to  this  country  from  abroad.  These 
duties  are  levied  not  only  as  a  means  of  revenue,  but 
also  to  protect  domestic  manufactures  against  foreign 
competition. 

Customs  or  import  duties  are  collected  at  ports  of 
entry  located  at  different  points  along  our  boundary. 
Each  importer  presents  an  inventory  of  the 
of  customs  goods  which  he  has  brought  from  abroad, 
and  a  statement  of  their  value.  The  govern- 
ment collector  of  customs  and  his  assistants  then  dc 
cide  the  amount  of  duty  to  be  paid.  If  importers  place 
a  dishonest  valuation  upon  their  goods,  the  govern- 
ment officials  may  charge  a  double  rate  of  duties  as  a 
penalty.  On  many  articles  there  is  a  very  high  tariff, 
so  that  strict  precautions  are  necessary  to  prevent 
smuggling. 

The  advantage  of  taxing  imports  is,  that  this  kind 
of  tax  is  scarcely  felt  by  the  people ;  for  the  duties 
Advantages  are  paid  by  the  importer,  who  adds  the 
S?tiifs1^  amount  of  the  tax  to  the  price  of  the  goods, 
of  tax  rjij^ig  jjj^y  I3Q  considered  a  disadvantage  as 

well;  for  people  are  more  likely  to  overlook  waste 
and  extravagance  in  government  expenditures,  if  they 
do  not  realize  that  they  themselves  are  paying  the 
bills.  Indirect  taxes  are  not  brought  to  their  attention 


EXPENSES   OF  GOVERNMENT  147 

in  the  same  forcible  way  as  direct  taxes,  which  they  pay 
directly  to  the  local  treasurer ;  but  they  pay  the  indi- 
rect tax  nevertheless,  without  realizing  its  amount,  or 
the  burden  which  it  imposes. 

Other  objections  to  import  duties  are,  that  these 
taxes  are  not  proportioned  to  the  wealth  of  the  tax- 
payers, but  impose  an  undue  burden  upon  persons  of 
moderate  means.  Moreover,  import  duties  are  an  un- 
certain form  of  tax,  likely  to  yield  least  when  the 
government  need  is  greatest.  For  example,  in  time  of 
war  or  industrial  depression,  foreign  trade  usually 
declines,  and  the  receipts  from  import  duties  decrease 
accordingly. 

156.  Excises  or  Internal  Revenue  Taxes.  An  ex- 
cise or  internal  revenue  tax  is  one  levied  upon  the 
consumption,  manufacture,  or  sale  of  com-  whatexciw 
modities  within  a  country.  Like  customs  *"""• 
duties,  these  taxes  are  borne  by  the  consumers  who 
pay  higher  prices  for  the  articles  taxed.  This  form 
of  tax  is  levied  chiefly  upon  liquors  and  tobacco.  The 
rate  is  made  high,  since  it  is  considered  desirable  to 
discourage  the  consumption  of  these  commodities. 

For  the  fiscal  year  1918,  the  national  government 
received  from  internal  revenue  taxes  the  enormous 
sum  of  $3,694,000,000.  Of  this  total,  the  taxes  on 
income  and  excess  profits  yielded  $2,839,000,000. 
The  second  largest  item  was  from  the  tax  on  liquor, 
$443,000,000 ;  while  from  tobacco  and  its  manufac- 
tures, the  revenue  was  $156,000,000.  This  heavy  taxa- 
tion was  the  result  of  war  conditions.  In  normal  times, 
internal  revenue  taxes  yield  about  $400,000,000. 

For  the  collection  of  excise  taxes,  the  country  is 


148  PREPARING   FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

divided  into  a  large  number  of  districts,  in  each  of 
which  there  is  a  collector  of  internal  revenue. 

Collection       mi         i      •  •  i    i  o 

oi excise  ihe  duties  are  paid  by  means  or  revenue 
stamps,  which  must  be  purchased  from  the 
government  and  pasted  on  each  unit  of  the  com- 
modity. If  you  examine  a  cigar  box,  you  will  see  that 
these  stamps  are  pasted  on  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
broken  when  the  box  is  opened. 

Excise  taxes  can  be  increased  readily  in  time  of 
war,  and  many  additional  articles  taxed.  For  example, 
during  the  Civil  War,  in  the  Spanish- American  War, 
and  in  the  War  of  1917,  Congress  levied  stamp  taxes 
on  checks,  telegrams,  and  express  receipts,  besides 
heavy  taxes  on  almost  every  form  of  industry. 

157.  Miscellaneous  National  Taxes.  During  the 
Civil  War  Congress  levied  a  general  income  tax,  which 
was  in  force  from  1861  to  1872.  Again  in 
1894,  Congress  endeavored  to  levy  an  income 
tax,  but  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  de- 
clared this  tax  unconstitutional.  By  a  constitutional 
amendment  ratified  in  1913,  Congress  was  authorized 
to  tax  incomes ;  and  in  the  same  year  a  law  was  passed 
taxing  incomes  above  a  certain  amount.  This  rate  has 
since  been  increased  in  order  to  provide  the  large  rev- 
enues necessary  for  national  defense.  Our  present  in- 
come tax  applies  not  only  to  individuals,  but  also  to 
corporations,  whose  "  excess  business  profits  "  pay  a 
large  tax  into  the  national  treasury. 

The  federal  government  has  authority  to  levy  direct 
Direct  taxes,  but  they  must  be  in  proportion  to  the 
^®*  population  of  the  States,  and  cannot  be  based 

upon  the  distribution  of  wealth.    On  five  different 


EXPENSES  OF   GOVERNMENT  149 

occasions  Congress  has  levied  direct  taxes,  the  last 
being  in  1861.  Only  a  small  amount  of  revenue  was 
obtained,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  Congress  will  again 
make  use  of  this  kind  of  tax. 

158.  Borrowing  Money.  In  addition  to  the  revenue 
secured  by  taxation,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  for 
governments  to  meet  extraordinary  expendi- 
tures by  borrowing  money.   State  and  local  ment bonds, 
debts  are  gfenerally  incurred  for  expensive  they  are 

.        .  Issued 

public  works,  as  electric  light  plants,  water- 
works, street  paving,  courthouses,  schools,  and  other 
public  buildings.  These  public  works  will  be  used 
by  many  generations  of  people ;  it  is  therefore  unjust 
to  place  the  whole  burden  of  their  cost  upon  present- 
day  taxpayers. 

Governments  borrow  money  by  issuing  bonds, 
which  usually  bear  from  four  to  six  per  cent  interest, 
and  run  for  a  long  term,  generally  thirty  or  forty 
years.  These  bonds  are  sold  at  public  sale;  and  since 
the  investor  is  sure  of  the  safety  of  his  money,  they 
command  a  premium  except  during  time  of  war. 

State  debts  are  now  decreasing,  and  a  number  of 
commonwealths  are  practically  free  from  debt.  On 
the  other  hand,  local  and  city  indebtedness  state  and 
is  rapidly  increasing,  owing  to  the  large  lo^aideDta 
number  of  services  which  these  governments  are 
called  upon  to  perform.  The  total  municipal  indebt- 
edness throughout  the  Union  is  about  six  times  that 
of  the  State  governments. 

The  national  debt  is  due  chiefly  to  the  wars  in 
which  the  United  States  has  been  engaged.  During 
the  Civil  War,  the  national  debt  reached  a  total  of 


150  PREPARING  FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

over  two  and  one  half  billions.  After  the  war  this 
National  ^ebt  was  gradually  reduced,  until  it  amounted 
*^^^  to  about  one  billion  dollars  just  before  we 

entered  the  World  War.  This  great  conflict  made 
necessary  loans  on  a  scale  never  before  thought  of, 
four  great  Liberty  Loans  having  been  made  during 
the  war,  and  a  fifth  Victory  Loan  soon  after  the 
armistice  was  signed.  The  total  cost  of  the  war  to 
the  United  States,  exclusive  of  loans  to  our  Allies,  is 
estimated  at  $22,000,000,000.  Vast  as  is  our  national 
indebtedness  at  the  close  of  this  struggle,  the  United 
States  has  immense  resources  with  which  to  meet  its 
obligations.  ' 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  State  which  of  the  following  kinds  of  taxes  are  levied  in 
your  State :  general  property  tax,  mortgage  tax,  inheritance 
tax,  corporation  tax,  poll  or  capitation  tax,  income  tax,  license 
or  business  tax,  franchise  tax. 

2.  What  is  the  total  assessed  valuation  of  property  in  your  city 
or  county  ?  What  is  the  tax  rate  for  city,  school,  county,  and 
State  purposes  ?  Taking  the  assessed  valuation  as  a  basis, 
figure  the  amount  of  revenue  which  each  area  would  receive 
at  the  respective  rates.  (A  tax  bill  should  be  brought  to  class 
and  used  in  answering  the  foregoing.) 

3.  Study  the  method  of  assessing  property  and  of  levying  the 
general  property  tax  in  your  community.  Compare  with  the 
process  described  in  the  text. 

4.  What  portion  of  one's  real  or  personal  property  is  exempt 
from  taxation  in  your  State?  What  is  the  reason  for  the 
exemption  ? 

5.  Does  personal  property  bear  its  share  of  taxation  in  your 
community,  or  does  the  greater  part  of  it  escape  taxation.*^ 
Can  you  suggest  a  remedy  ? 

6.  By  wi»om  are  taxes  assessed  in  your  city  or  county?  To  whom 
paid  ? 

7.  Does  the  right  to  vote  in  your  State  depend  upon  the  payment 
of  any  kind  of  taxes  ?  Are  all  taxpayers  voters  ? 


EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT  151 

8.  What  is  the  amount  of  your  State  debt  ?  Of  your  county  debt  ? 
Of  your  city  debt?  Of  your  school-district  debt?  How  are 
these  debts  to  be  paid  ?  How  do  the  amounts  of  these  forms 
of  indebtedness  affect  the  present  tax  rate  ? 

9.  For  what  amount  are  bonds  generally  issued  by  your  local 
government  ?  What  is  the  usual  rate  of  interest  ?  How  are 
the  bonds  sold  ? 

10.  For  what  purposes  are  governments  justified  in  issuing  bonds  ? 
Is  it  proper  to  issue  bonds  to  defray  current  expenses  ? 

11.  May  the  United  States  government  tax  legacies  ?  May  a 
State  tax  imported  goods  ? 

12.  Discuss  the  arguments  in  favor  of  a  federal  income  tax. 

13.  May  Congress  grant  to  certain  individuals  the  privilege  of 
importing  goods  free,  while  compelling  others  to  pay  duties  ? 
May  Congress  provide  a  lower  rate  of  duties  on  goods  shipped 
to  Boston  than  on  similar  goods  shipped  to  New  York  ? 

14.  What  imports  are  taxed  heavily  for  the  sake  of  revenue 
only  ?  Does  the  chief  burden  fall  on  articles  of  luxury  or  on 
necessities  ? 

15.  Account  for  the  enormous  growth  of  governmental  expendi- 
tures. Is  this  increase  justifiable?  (Reinsch,  P. S.,  Readings^ 
pp.  355-359.) 

16.  Discuss  the  reasons  given  by  President  Cleveland  for  his  veto 
of  the  River  and  Harbor  Bill  in  1896.  (Reinsch,  P.  S.,  Read- 
ings, pp.  359-361.) 

17.  May  Congress  distribute  surplus  revenue  among  the  States  ? 
Has  this  ever  been  done  ? 

18.  What  is  meant  by  the  statement  that  bonds  are  quoted  at  106  ? 
At  98  ?  Examine  your  daily  papers  for  the  current  price  of 
United  States  bonds.  How  do  you  account  for  changes  in 
these  quotations  ? 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE   UNITED    STATES 

159.  The  Second  Continental  Congress  (1775-1781). 
In  your   study  of   our    national    history,  you   have 

learned  something  of  the  Second  Continen- 

CJovemlng  " 

body  during  tal  Cougress,  the  Revolutionary  assembly 
which  carried  on  the  eventful  struggle  with 
Great  Britain.  Each  colony  sent  delegates  to  this 
Congress,  which  thus  formed  a  bond  of  union  among 
the  thirteen  different  colonies,  making  it  possible  for 
them  to  act  as  one  country.  Throughout  the  Revolu- 
tion, the  Second  Continental  Congress  really  exercised 
the  powers  of  a  national  government.  It  raised  an 
army  and  a  navy,  borrowed  money,  established  the 
post-office  and  treasury  departments,  adopted  the  De- 
claration of  Independence,  concluded  a  treaty  of  alli- 
ance with  France,  and  later  the  treaty  of  peace  with 
Great  Britain. 

160.  Formation  of  the  Confederation  Government 
As  soon  as  independence  was  decided  upon  (1776), 
Aieagueoi  ^he  Second  Continental  Congress  drew  up  a 
states  pig^jj  £qj,  ^  permanent  union  of  the  thirteen 
new  States,  under  a  form  of  government  called  the 
Articles  of  Confederation.  These  Articles  were  finally 
ratified  by  all  the  States  (March  1,  1781),  and  con- 
tinued in  force  from  that  date  until  the  adoption  of 
our  present  constitution,  about  eight  years  later.  The 
government  established  by  the  Articles  of  Confeder- 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    153 

ation  was  not  a  national  government  such  as  we  have 
to-day,  with  power  to  enforce  its  laws  and  to  tax  the 
people  for  its  support.  The  States  were  too  jealous  of 
their  own  rights  to  create  a  strong  national  govern- 
ment ;  so  they  formed  a  league  or  confederation  in 
which  the  smallest  State  had  as  much  power  as  the 
largest. 

i6i.  Characteristics  of  the  Confederation  Govern- 
ment. Instead  of  three  departments  of  government, 
executive,  legislative,  and  judicial,  the  pow- 
ers of  this  Confederation  were  exercised  by  necessary 
a  Congress  of  one  house,  in  which  each  State 
had  an  equal  vote.  Since  there  was  no  national  execu- 
tive. Congress  had  to  depend  upon  the  States  to  en- 
force its  laws.  For  example.  Congress  could  not  levy 
taxes  upon  the  individual  citizen,  and  compel  him  to 
pay  them,  as  our  national  government  does  to-day.  It 
could  only  ask  the  States  to  contribute  their  share 
toward  the  common  expenses ;  and  since  many  States 
failed  to  pay,  the  Confederation  government  soon 
became  bankrupt.^  Nor  could  Congress  raise  soldiers 
by  calling  for  volunteers  and  compelling  men  to  serve, 
as  our  national  government  did  in  the  Civil  War.  It 
could  only  request  the  States  for  troops,  and  was 
helpless  if  the  States  did  not  choose  to  furnish  them. 
Congress  also  lacked  the  power  to  control  commerce 
by  means  of  commercial  treaties  and  trade  regulations. 
Commerce  with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  sev- 
eral States  was  controlled  by  the  individual  common- 
wealths, each  of  which  tried  to  promote  its  own  trade 

^  From  1782  to  1786,  Congress  made  requisitions  on  the  States 
amounting  in  all  to  $10,000,000,  of  which  only  about  $1,500,000  was 
actually  paid. 


154  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

flt  the  expense  of  all  the  rest.  Hence  State  quarreled 
with  State;  and  foreign  governments  treated  the  new 
nation  with  contempt,  declining  to  make  treaties  with 
a  government  powerless  to  enforce  them. 

Within  the  States  there  was  disorder,  and  some- 
times rebellion.  Worthless  paper  money  was  issued  in 
Internal  large  amounts,  debts  were  repudiated,  and 
diiorder  '^  Massachusetts  the  debtors  took  up  arms 
to  prevent  the  holding  of  courts.  This  disorder  Con- 
gress was  powerless  to  suppress ;  indeed  Congress 
itself  was  at  one  time  chased  out  of  Philadelphia  by 
a  handful  of  drunken  soldiers  clamorinof  for  their 
pay.  Such  were  the  conditions  during  the  critical 
period  of  our  history  from  1783  to  1787,  until  at  last 
men  realized  that  the  Union  must  be  strengthened, 
or  give  way  to  a  condition  of  anarchy  and  civil  war. 

162.  The  Constitutional  Convention  (1787).  Mean- 
time some  of  America's  foremost  men,  especially 
lunstrions  Washington,  Hamilton,  and  Madison,  were 
memDers  striving  to  form  a  better  system  of  govern- 
ment. Largely  through  their  efforts,  it  was  finally 
determined  to  hold  a  constitutional  convention.  This 
body  was  to  revise  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
so  as  to  create  a  government  with  powers  adequate 
to  the  country's  needs.  On  May  25,  1787,  the  dele- 
gates to  this  convention  met  at  Philadelphia,  in  the 
famous  building  where  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence had  been  signed  twelve  years  before.  Among 
the  fifty-five  members  were  many  of  the  greatest 
leaders  of  the  time,  including  Washington,  Madison, 
Hamilton,  Franklin,  James  Wilson,  Gouverneur  Mor- 
ris, Roger  Sherman,  and  Charles  Pinckney.    In  view 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    155 

of  the  experience  and  ability  of  its  members,  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  task  before  them,  and  their  splendid 
achievement,  the  Constitutional  Convention  may  be 
regarded  as  the  most  notable  assembly  which  has  ever 
met  in  this  country. 

163.  Organization  and  Proceedings.  The  convention 
organized  by  selecting  George  Washington  ^^^^^^^ 
as  presiding:  officer.    It  was  decided  that  all  over 
outsiders  should  be  excluded  from  the  sessions, 

and  that  each  State  should  have  one  vote,  as  in  the 
Confederation  Congress. 

The  first  contest  arose  over  the  question  whether 
a  strong  national  government  should  be  created. 
Many  of  the  delegates  wished  to  amend  the  Articles 
of  Confederation,  giving  Congress  somewhat  larger 
powers,  but  leaving  the  States  supreme  in  most  mat- 
ters, as  before.  Some  delegates  desired  to  temporize 
in  order  to  please  the  people.  Washington  put  an  end 
to  the  temporizing  policy  in  these  memorable  words : 
"If,  to  please  the  people,  we  offer  what  we  ourselves 
disapprove,  how  can  we  afterwards  defend  our  work? 
Let  us  raise  a  standard  to  which  the  wise  and  the 
honest  can  repair ;  the  event  is  in  the  hand  of  God.'^ 
After  some  discussion,  the  attempt  to  revise  the  Arti- 
cles of  Confederation  was  abandoned.  The  conven- 
tion determined  to  create  a  national  government, 
consisting  of  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  de- 
partments •  and  this  government  was  to  have  all  the 
powers  necessary  to  carry  on  its  work. 

164.  The  CompronGdse  over  Representation.  It  was 
readily  agreed  that  the  national  legislature  or  Congress 
should  consist  of  two  houses ;  but  there  was  a  long 


156  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

and  earnest  debate  over  the  method  by  which  the 
Represent-  States  should  be  represented  in  this  body. 
niuse^^T  The  large  States  insisted  that  representation 
Senate  jj^  each  branch  of  Congress  should  be  propor- 
tioned to  population,  while  the  small  States  demanded 
equal  representation  in  both  houses,  regardless  of  the 
size  of  the  State.  Neither  side  would  yield,  and  for  a 
time  it  seemed  likely  that  this  dispute  would  wreck 
the  convention.  Finally  the  compromise  plan  sug- 
gested by  Sherman  of  Connecticut  was  adopted,  the 
agreement  being  called  the  Connecticut  Compromise. 
In  the  lower  house  of  Congress  each  State  was  to  be 
represented  in  proportion  to  its  population,  while  in 
the  upper  house  the  States  were  to  be  equally  repre- 
sented, each  having  two  Senators. 

165.  Regulation  of  Conunerce  and  the  Slave  Trade. 
A  second  compromise  was  necessary  in  order  to  recon- 
cile the  views  of  the  delegates  from  the  slaveholding 
States  with  those  from  commercial  New  England.  The 
commercial  States  desired  to  give  the  national  gov- 
ernment power  to  regulate  commerce;  but  the  slave- 
holding  States  feared  that  this  power,  if  granted, 
might  be  used  to  prohibit  the  slave  trade.  Finally  it 
was  agreed  that  Congress  should  have  power  to  regu- 
late commerce,  but  that  the  slave  trade  should  not 
be  prohibited  prior  to  1808. 

166.  Election  and  Term  of  President.  Many  other 
compromises  and  modifications  were  necessary  before 
the  convention  could  complete  its  work.  Originally 
it  had  been  agreed  that  the  President  should  be  chosen 
by  Congress  for  a  term  of  seven  years.  Fearing  that 
this  plan  would  make  the  executive  a  mere  agent  of 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    157 

Congress,  the  convention  finally  determined  that  the 
President  should  be  chosen  by  the  Electoral  College 
for  a  term  of  four  years. 

167.  Completion  of  the  Convention's  Work.  At  last, 
after  four  months  of  deliberation,  the  convention 
completed  its  great  task ;  and  on  September  17,  1787, 
the  new  constitution  was  signed  by  thirty-nine  dele- 
gates. As  the  members  were  affixing  their  signatures, 
Franklin  pointed  toward  the  presiding  officer's  chair, 
on  the  back  of  which  was  painted  a  half-sun,  and  re- 
marked to  those  near  him  that  painters  found  it  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  in  their  art  between  a  rising  and 
a  setting  sun.  "  I  have,"  he  declared,  "  often  and 
often,  in  the  course  of  this  session  .  .  .  looked  at 
that  behind  the  president  without  being  able  to  tell 
whether  it  was  rising  or  setting.  But  now  I  have  the 
happiness  to  know  that  it  is  a  rising  and  not  a  setting 
sun." 

168.  The  Contest  over  Ratification.  The  new  con- 
stitution was  not  to  become  effective  unless  ratified 
by  at  least  nine  of  the  thirteen  States ;  and  as  soon 
as  it  was  published,  the  contest  over  ratification  com- 
menced. The  opponents  of  the  constitution  declared 
that  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the  national  govern- 
ment at  the  expense  of  the  States,  and  that  its  adop- 
tion would  sound  the  death  knell  of  popular  liberty. 
The  Federalists,  as  the  supporters  of  the  new  consti- 
tution styled  themselves,  defended  the  proposed  plan 
with  great  ability,  pointing  to  existing  conditions  as 
an  unanswerable  argument  in  favor  of  a  stronger  gov- 
ernment. The  Delaware  Convention  was  the  first  to 
ratify  the  constitution  (December  6,  1787).  Others 


158  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

soon  followed,  and  after  some  delay  the  ninth  State, 
New  Hampshire,  accepted  the  constitution  (June  21, 
1788),  thus  insuring  its  adoption.  Virginia  and  New 
York  soon  brought  the  number  up  to  eleven ;  while 
North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  gave  a  tardy  and 
reluctant  assent  in  1789  and  1790,  respectively. 

169.  Inauguration  of  the  New  Government.  The 
first  Wednesday  in  March,  1789,  was  fixed  as  the 
date  for  inaugurating  the  new  government,  and  the 
city  of  New  York  was  chosen  as  the  temporary  capi- 
tal. Summoned  by  unanimous  vote  to  the  presidency, 
George  Washington  left  his  beautiful  country  home 
at  Mount  Vernon  to  take  up  the  heavy  responsi- 
bilities of  his  office.  On  April  30,  1789,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  a  vast  multitude  of  people,  he  was  inaugur- 
ated President,  and  the  new  government  was  fairly 
launched  on  its  course. 

170.  Constitutional  Amendments.  To  the  original 
constitution  framed  in  1787,  eighteen  amendments 
TheBiuof  have  since  been  added.  The  first  ten  of  these 
Rights  ^j,Q  Jj^nown  as  the  bill  of  rights,  because  they 
are  designed  to  secure  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the 
individual  against  government  oppression.  Freedom 
of  religion,  of  speech,  and  of  the  press,  and  the  right 
of  petition,  are  assured.  Arbitrary  arrest,  unreason- 
able searches  or  seizures,  the  quartering  of  soldiers  in 
private  houses,  and  the  taking  of  private  property 
without  just  compensation,  are  prohibited.  The  right 
of  trial  by  jury  is  guaranteed,  and  excessive  bail,  ex- 
cessive fines,  and  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  are 
alike  forbidden. 

The  eleventh  amendment  relates  to  the  jurisdiction 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    159 

of  the  federal  courts.  The  twelfth  changed  the  method 
of  electing  the  President.  The  thirteenth  other 
amendment  abolishes  slavery,  the  fourteenth  amendments 
makes  the  negro  a  citizen,  and  the  fifteenth  forbids 
the  States  to  deny  him  the  right  to  vote  "on  account 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude." 
The  sixteenth  amendment  gives  Congress  the  power 
to  levy  an  income  tax.  The  seventeenth  provides  for 
the  election  of  United  States  Senators  by  the  voters 
of  each  State,  instead  of  by  the  State  legislature.  The 
eighteenth  prohibits  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  intox- 
icating liquor.  The  proposed  nineteenth  amendment 
grants  the  ballot  to  women  on  equal  terms  with  men. 

171.  Method  of  Amending  the  Constitution.  These 
amendments  were  adopted  by  one  of  the  two  methods 
which  the  constitution  provides  for  its  amendment. 
They  were  first  proposed  by  Congress,  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  house  being  necessary,  and  afterwards  rati- 
fied by  the  legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  States. 

The. original  constitution  has  also  been  modified 
by  the  broad  interpretation  placed  upon  its  provisions 
by  the  Supreme  Court,  which  has  expanded  the  au- 
thority of  the  national  government  to  keep  pace  with 
the  wonderful  industrial  development  of  our  country. 

172.  The  Federal  System.  Our  government,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  a  federal  one.  We  have  forty-eight 
States,  each  having:  its  own  State  srovernment 

'  .        ^  .         ^  Relation  ol 

charged  with  important  duties  and  powers;  union  to  the 
while  all  of  the  States  are  united  to  form  a 
national  government,  exercising  powers  relating  to 
the  welfare  of  the  nation  as  a  whole.  The  States  are  as 
•essential  to  the  Union  as  the  fingers  to  the  hand;  and 


160  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

the  Union  is  equally  essential  to  the  States.  The  fed- 
eral plan  of  government  has  been  compared  to  the 
solar  system,  the  national  government  resembling  the 
sun,  and  the  States  the  planets,  each  moving  in  its 
respective  orbit. 

Hence  it  follows  that  the  States  have  duties  toward 
the  national  government,  as  well  as  toward  one  an- 
Dntieaoi  Other;  and  the  national  government,  in  turn, 
statei  j^g^g  obligations  toward  the  several  States. 
One  of  the  duties  of  every  State  is  to  remain  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Union :  in  other  words,  ours  is  "  an  inde- 
structible Union  composed  of  indestructible  States." 
Also,  the  States  are  under  obligation  to  maintain  a 
militia  over  which  the  national  government  exercises 
certain  powers  of  control.  They  also  have  the  duty 
and  privilege  of  electing  Senators,  Representatives, 
and  presidential  electors,  thus  helping  to  carry  on  the 
national  government. 

Toward  one  another  the  States  have  certain  duties, 

the  most  important  of  which  is  that  of  extra- 

dition,  or  the  giving  up  of  persons  charged 

with  crime  to  the  authorities  of  the  State  where  the 

crime  was  committed. 

The  national  government  has  important  obligations 
Obugations  toward  the  individual  States.  It  guarantees 
national  ©Very  State  a  republican  form  of  government, 
government  ^nd  will  protcct  cach  against  foreign  inva- 
sion, or  domestic  violence  which  the  State  authorities 
are  unable  to  suppress. 

173.  Powers  of  National  and  State  Governments. 
The  constitution  vests  in  the  national  government 
those  powers  which  are  essentially  national  in  char* 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    161 

acter,  leaving  the  States  in  control  of  all  other  mat- 
ters. Thus  the  national  government  has  Tiienauoxiai 
charge  of  foreign  relations,  including  the  meYvs" 
right  to  make  treaties,  to  send  and  receive  po^«" 
embassadors,  to  declare  war,  and  to  make  peace.  Con- 
trol of  commerce  with  foreign  nations  and  among 
the  several  States,  is  another  important  power  belong- 
ing to  the  national  government.  Congress  likewise 
has  power  to  coin  money,  to  establish  a  postal  system, 
to  make  laws  on  the  subject  of  naturalization,  to  con- 
trol territories  and  public  lands,  to  maintain  an  army 
and  navy,  to  grant  copyrights  and  patents,  to  borrow 
money,  and  to  levy  taxes  for  the  support  of  the 
national  government.  All  of  these  powers  are  ex- 
pressly granted  in  the  federal  constitution ;  and  we 
see  that  all  of  them  are  powers  which  should  be  per- 
formed by  the  national  government,  since  they  afPect 
the  welfare  of  the  entire  country. 

To  the  States,  on  the  other  hand,  are  left  matters 
of  more  local  concern,  includinsr  education, 

11  1      •  n  f.    Powers  ot 

local  government,  regulation  or  contracts,  or  state  gov- 

ii«  111         *ii*       enunents 

marriage  and  divorce,  commerce  wholly  within 
a  State,  laws  against  crime,  and  taxation  for  the  sup- 
port of  State  and  local  governments. 

In  the  federal  constitution  are  placed  important 
prohibitions  on  the  national  government,  as  well  as 
upon  the  State  orovernments.    The  obiect  of 

.^  ,  .,  .  .      ^  .  -J  ProWbltlons 

these  prohibitions  is  to  prevent  encroachment 
by  one  government  upon  the  sphere  of  the  other,  or 
upon  the  rights  of  the  individual.  For  example,  Con- 
gress may  not  tax  exports,  or  grant  titles  of  nobility, 
or  establish  or  prohibit  any  form  of  religion ;  nor 


X62  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

may  any  State  levy  a  tax  upon  imports,  or  coin  money, 
or  establish  or  allow  slavery. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  temporary  unions  were  formed  among  the  American 
colonies  prior  to  1781  ? 

2.  Which  body  exercised  greater  authority,  the  Second  Conti- 
nental Congress  or  the  Congress  under  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation ? 

3.  What  were  the  causes  of  armed  resistance  to  Great  Britain 
as  set  forth  in  the  Declaration  adopted  by  the  Second  Con- 
tinental Congress  ?  (MacDonald,  William,  Select  Documents, 
I,  pp.  374-381.) 

4.  What  great  territorial  ordinance  was  adopted  by  Congress 
under  the  Articles  of  Confederation  ? 

5.  Discuss  the  reasons  which  made  a  new  constitution  imperative. 
(The  Federalist,  nos.  xv,  xvi,  xxi,  xxii.) 

6.  Discuss  the  efforts  to  amend  the  Articles  of  Confederation^ 
(Kaye,  P.  L.,  Headings,  pp.  39-44.) 

7.  Which  were  the  "  small  States  "  at  the  time  of  the  Constitu- 
tional Convention? 

8.  Explain  how  the  constitution  corrected  the  chief  defects  of 
the  government  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

9.  Was  the  compromise  on  the  subject  of  representation  a  fair 
one? 

10.  Prepare  a  report  upon  the  contest  over  ratification.  (Landon, 
J.  S.,  Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States,  pp.  89- 
124.) 

11.  Is  the  process  of  amending  the  federal  constitution  too  diffi* 
cult  ?  Give  your  reasons. 

12.  Give  an  account  of  the  election  of  1800,  and  explain  why 
the  twelfth  amendment  was  necessary. 

13.  Prepare  a  report  upon  the  adoption  of  the  thirteenth,  four* 
teenth,  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  amendments. 

14.  Explain  fully  how  the  federal  government  brings  its  author- 
ity to  bear  directly  upon  individuals.  Contrast  this  with  the 
condition  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

15.  Explain  the  reason  for  giving  the  national  government  con- 
trol of  each  of  the  subiects  enumerated  in  Section  173. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CONGRESS    AND    ITS    WORK 

174.  Our  National  Capital.  Doubtless  some  of  you 
have  visited  the  beautiful  city  on  the  banks  of  the 
Potomac  which  is  the  capital  of  the  nation ;  ^he  capitoi 
and  all  of  you  know  in  whose  honor  ttiis  city  ^^^^^^^ 
was  named.  Of  the  magnificent  public  buildings  to 
be  seen  here,  the  most  imposing  is  the  Capitol,  a  mas- 
sive structure  of  iron  and  marble  built  on  the  crest  of 
a  hill,  and  covering  an  area  of  over  three  acres.  Sur- 
mounting the  Capitol  is  an  immense  dome,  two  hun- 
dred and  eighty-eight  feet  in  height,  with  a  cupola 
from  which  you  may  view  the  entire  city,  and  see  the 
distant  mountains  between  which  flow  the  placid  waters 
of  the  Potomac.  On  the  top  of  this  dome  is  the  Statue 
of  Liberty,  a  female  figure  in  bronze,  holding  in  the 
right  hand  a  sheathed  sword,  the  left  resting  on  a 
shield  and  a  victor's  wreath.  Over  either  end  of  the 
Capitol  building  a  flag  raised  in  the  daytime,  or  a 
brilliant  light  in  the  dome  at  night,  indicates  that 
Congress,  the  legislature  of  the  nation,  is  in  session. 

The  Senate  chamber  is  in  the  north  wing  of  the 
Capitol  building,  while  the  great  hall  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  occupies  the  south  wing. 
The   Senate   chamber  is  the  smaller,  since  senate  and 
there  are  only  two  Senators  from  each  State, 
or  ninety-six  in  all.  The  Hall  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives is  large  enough  to  accommodate  four  hun* 


164  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

dred  and  thirty-five  members,  for  in  this  body  the 
States  are  represented  according  to  population.  In 
the  Senate  chamber,  members  occupy  desks  with  re- 
volving chairs.  Members  of  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives are  now  seated  on  benches,  as  in  the  British 
House  of  Commons.  Around  all  four  sides  of  each 
hall  are  immense  galleries  for  visitors. 

i7S'  Composition  of  the  Senate.  It  may  seem 
strange  to  you  that  Nevada  with  a  population  of 
Equal  repre-  Sl,875  should  have  two  Senators,  while  the 
sentation  g^cat  State  of  Ncw  York  with  over  nine  mil- 
lion people  should  be  represented  by  the  same  number. 
This  equality  of  representation  in  the  Senate  is  the 
result  of  a  great  historic  compromise,  necessary  in 
order  to  secure  the  consent  of  the  smaller  States  to 
the  adoption  of  our  federal  constitution.  Since  the 
constitution  provides  that  no  State  may  be  deprived 
of  its  equal  representation  without  its  own  consent, 
this  is  a  permanent  and  unchangeable  feature  of  our 
government. 

176.  The  Election  of  Senators,  The  voters  of  each 
State  elect  the  two  Senators  who  represent  that  State 
in  the  Senate,  or  upper  house  of  Congress.  The  seven- 
teenth amendment,  adopted  in  1913,  established  this 
method  of  election.  Before  that  time.  Senators  were 
chosen  by  the  legislatures  of  their  respective  States. 
The  framers  of  the  constitution  believed  that  better 
men  would  be  chosen  in  this  way.  But  there  were 
serious  objections  to  the  method  of  indirect  election. 
If  there  were  three  candidates  for  the  office,  it  some- 
times happened  that  no  one  of  them  could  secure  a 
majority  vote  in  the  legislature.    The  result  was  a 


CONGRESS  AND  ITS  WORK  165 

^^  deadlock/'  or  failure  to  elect.  For  many  years, 
public  sentiment  demanded  that  Senators  be  chosen 
directly  by  the  voters ;  and  finally  in  11)13,  the  con- 
stitution was  amended  so  as  to  bring  about  this  re- 
sult. 

177.  Term  and  Qualifications  of  Senators.  Sena- 
tors are  chosen  for  a  term  of  six  years,  whereas  Repre- 
sentatives serve  for  but  two  years.  The  terms  of  one 
third  of  the  Senators  expire  every  two  years,  so  that 
the  Senate  is  a  continuous  body.  In  order  to  be  a  Sen- 
ator, a  man  must  be  at  least  thirty  years  of  age ;  the 
average  age  of  the  members  is  about  fifty-five  years. 
A  Senator  must  have  been  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  for  nine  years,  and  must  be  an  inhabitant  of 
the  State  from  which  he  is  chosen. 

178.  Powers  of  the  Senate.  The  Senate  shares 
with  the  House  all  the  work  of  lawmaking,  for  no 
measure  can  become  a  law  without  the  con-  Legislative 
sent  of  both  branches.  In  addition  to  this  *°^®' 
legislative  power,  the  Senate  has  two  special  or  execu- 
tive powers,  which  it  shares  with  the  President :  these 
are  the  power  to  confirm  treaties,  and  to  pass  upon 
important  executive  appointments. 

The  President  makes  treaties  with  other  countries, 
but  he  must  submit  them  to  the  Senate  for 

,  ,  ,  .     T  Conflnna- 

approval ;  and  no  treaty  becomes  binding  un-  tionoitrea- 
less  ratified  by  a  favorable  vote  of  two  thirds 
of  the  Senators.  This  gives  the  Senate  considerable 
control  over  our  foreign  relations. 

Moreover,  the  Senate's  approval  is  necessary  in  the 
case  of  all  important  appointments  made  by  the  Presi- 
dent—  such  as  cabinet  ofi&cers^  ambassadors,  federal 


166  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

judges,  consuls,  collectors  of  customs  and  internal 
revenue.  When  the  President  is  ready  to 
appoint-  make  an  appointment  to  one  of  these  offices, 
he  sends  the  name  of  the  person  he  has  se- 
lected to  the  Senate ;  and  a  majority  vote  of  that  body 
is  necessary  to  confirm  the  appointment.  In  consider^ 
ing  treaties  and  appointments,  the  Senate  meets  in 
secret  or  "  executive  "  session ;  the  galleries  are  cleared 
and  the  doors  closed,  in  order  that  members  may 
express  themselves  with  entire  freedom. 

179.  The  Election  of  Representatives.  The  House 
of  Representatives,  often  simply  called  the  House,  is 
a  much  larger  body  than  the  Senate.  Its  members  are 
chosen  by  the  voters  in  the  congressional  districts  into 
which  each  State  is  divided.  The  number  of  Repre- 
sentatives to  which  a  State  is  entitled  depends  upon 
its  population  as  ascertained  by  the  federal  census. 
Thus  we  find  that  Pennsylvania,  with  a  population  of 
7,665,111,  has  thirty-six  Representatives;  Missouri, 
with  3,293,335,  has  sixteen  Representatives ;  and  New 
Hampshire,  with  430,572  people,  is  represented  by  two 
members. 

Once  in  ten  years  after  the  federal  census  is  taken, 
each  State  is  divided  by  its  legislature  into  as  many 
districts  as  the  number  of  Representatives 
sionaidis-  to  wliich  the  State  is  entitled.  These  dis- 
tricts must  be  as  nearly  equal  in  population 
as  possible ;  at  the  present  time  each  district  contains 
about  210,000  people.  Sometimes  State  legislatures 
draw  the  district  lines  unfairly,  so  as  to  give  a  parti- 
san advantage  to  the  political  party  in  control  of  the 
legislature.  This  practice  of  arranging  districts,  so  as 


CONGRESS  AND  ITS  WORK  167 

to  give  one  party  more  members  than  it  really  de- 
serves, is  called  gerrymandering. 

1 80.  Term  and  Qualifications  of  Representatives. 
Eepresentatives  are  elected  for  two  years,  just  one 
third  as  long  as  the  term  of  Senators.  To  be  eligible 
to  the  office,  a  man  must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years 
of  age.  He  must  have  been  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  for  seven  years,  and  must  be  an  inhabitant  of 
the  State  from  which  he  is  chosen.  Custom  having 
almost  the  force  of  law  requires  that  a  member  shall 
reside  in  the  district  which  he  represents. 

181.  Privileges  and  Disabilities  of  Congressmen. 
Senators  and  Representatives  receive  the  same  com- 
pensation for  their  services.  The  annual  salary  is  now 
$7500,  with  an  additional  allowance  for  clerk  hire, 
stationery,  and  traveling  expenses. 

Members  of  Congress  are  not  allowed  to  hold  any 
other  federal  office  while  serving  in  Congress ;  nor 
may  they  be  appointed  to  any  office  which  was  created 
during  their  membership  in  Congress,  or  the  salary  of 
which  was  increased  durino^  their  term. 

182.  Special  Powers  of  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives. The  House  of  Representatives  has  two  special 
powers  which  are  not  shared  by  the  Senate.  First,  all 
bills  for  raising  revenue  must  originate  in  this  body, 
which  represents  the  voters  more  directly  than  the 
Senate.  This  rule  had  its  origin  in  Great  Britain, 
where  all  revenue  bills  must  originate  in  the  Revenne 
House  of  Commons,  or  lower  branch  of  Par-  *^"* 
liament.  But  the  Senate  may  amend  revenue  bills,  and 
does  so  freely ;  hence  the  exclusive  power  of  the  House 
to  originate  them  is  not  of  much  practical  consequence. 


168  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

The  second  special  power  of  the  House  of  Repref 
sentatives  is  the  right  to  bring  impeachment  charges 
impeacb-  against  any  government  official  who  has  been 
ment  guilty  of  misconduct.    The  process  of   im- 

peachment is  the  means  whereby  Congress  may  remove 
from  office  any  civil  officer  guilty  of  treason,  bribery, 
or  other  serious  offense.  The  framers  of  the  constitu- 
tion believed  that  the  power  of  impeachment  would 
enable  Congress  to  check  corruption  and  abuse  of 
power,  especially  on  the  part  of  executive  officials  and 
federal  judges. 

The  House  of  Representatives  has  the  sole  right 
to  commence  impeachment  proceedings.  The  House, 
acting  through  a  committee,  draws  up  the  articles  of 
impeachment,  just  as  the  grand  jury  frames  an  indict- 
ment. If  a  majority  of  the  House  vote  in  favor  of 
the  charges,  the  officer  is  said  to  be  "impeached," 
or  formally  accused.  His  trial  then  occurs  before  the 
Senate ;  and  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Senators  is  nec- 
essary to  convict  him.  Throughout  our  national  his- 
tory, only  ten  officers  have  been  impeached  by  the 
House;  and  of  these  only  three  were  convicted  by 
the  Senate.^ 

183.  Term  and  Sessions  of  Congress.  The  life  ot 
each  Congress  is  two  years,  the  same  as  the  term  for 
Avhich  Representatives  are  elected.  The  First  Con- 
gress began  its  legal  existence  March  4,  1789,  and 
expired  on  March  4,  1791 ;  and  so  on  to  the  Sixty- 
sixth  Congress  which  began  on  March  4,  1919,  and 
expires  at  noon  on  March  4^  1921. 

1  The  most  famous  impeachment  case  in  our  history  was  that  of 
President  Andrew  Johnson,  who  was  acquitted  by  the  narrow  margin 
of  one  vote.  Thirty-five  Senators  voted  guilty,  nineteen  not  guilty. 


THE  CAPITOL  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

Situated  on  Capitol  Hill,  about  1^  miles  from  the  White  House  and  the  Treasury.   The  corner- 
stone was  laid  by  President  Washington,  Sept.  18, 1793.  The  building  was  completed  in  1859. 


Courtesy,  Superintendent  of  the  United  States  Capitol  and  Grounds. 
THE  OFFICE  BUILDING  OF  THE  SENATE 

This  building  contains  99  rooms.   A  similar  one  for  the  House  of  Representatives  contains  410. 
Each  building  is  connected  with  the  Capitol  by  a  subway. 


THE  NATIONAL   SENATE   CHAMBER 


HALL  OF  THE   NATIONAL   HOUSE   OF   REPRESENTATIVES 


CONGRESS   AND   ITS   WORK  169 

Each  Congress  has  two  regular  sessions.  The  long 
session  extends  from  December  of  each  odd-numbered 
year  until  Congress  adjourns  the  following 
summer,  usually  in  June  or  July.  The  short 
session  begins  when  Congress  assembles  in  December 
of  the  even  numbered  years,  and  ends  at  noon  on 
the  following  fourth  of  March.  Special  sessions  may 
be  called  by  the  President  or  by  Congress  itself. 

Contrressional  elections  are  held  on  the  first  Tues- 
day  after  the  first  Monday  in  November  of  the  even- 
numbered  years.  Those  persons  are  qualified  to  vote 
for  Representatives  who  are  permitted  by  the  laws  of 
their  State  to  vote  for  members  of  the  State  legislature. 

184.  Presiding  Officers.  The  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States  presides  over  the  Senate;  while 
the  House  of  Representatives  elects  its  own  ^iie 
presiding  officer,  called  the  Speaker.  The  Speaker 
Speaker  of  the  House  is  a  very  important  officer; 
indeed,  it  has  been  said  that,  next  to  the  President,  he 
is  the  most  important  officer  in  our  government.  The 
Speaker  is  elected  by  the  political  party  which  has  a 
majority  in  the  House,  and  is  usually  a  great  party 
leader.  He  has  two  powers  ^  which  make  his  office  a 
most  important  one :  (1)  He  decides  to  which  com- 
mittee each  bill  shall  be  referred.  (2)  He  exercises  a 
large  degree  of  control  over  debate,  for  no  one  can 
speak  on  any  measure  unless  he  is  first  recognized 
by  the  Speaker.    When  important  measures  are  de- 

^  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  our  history,  the  Speaker  exer- 
cised a  very  large  control  over  legislation  through  his  power  to  ap- 
point the  committees  of  the  House.  But  in  1911,  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives made  a  cliange  in  its  rules,  and  transferred  this  power  from 
the  Speaker  to  a  committee  of  the  House.  This  practice,  if  continued, 
may  greatly  decrease  the  power  of  the  Speaker. 


170  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

bated,  the  Speaker,  after  consulting  with  the  com- 
mittee chairmen,  decides  who  shall  be  recognized  to 
debate  the  bill.  If  other  members  rise  to  address  the 
House,  the  Speaker  may  decline  to  recognize  them. 

185.  How  Laws  are  made.  An  immense  number  of 
bills  are  introduced  in  each  Congress ;  the  number 
introduc-  ofteu  cxcccds  20,000,  for  any  member  may 
tionof  wus  introduce  a  bill  on  any  subject.  Not  over  one 
twentieth  of  these  proposed  bills  will  be  enacted  into 
law ;  and  in  order  that  they  may  be  sifted  out  and 
properly  considered,  each  house  has  a  large  number  of 
committees.  When  a  member  introduces  a  bill,  its 
title  is  read,  and  it  is  referred  to  the  committee  which 
has  charge  of  that  subject.  Every  member  of  the 
House  serves  on  at  least  one  committee;  Senators 
serve  on  from  five  to  ten. 

Over  a  thousand  bills  are  sometimes  referred  to  a 
single  important  committee ;  so  we  are  not  surprised 
to  learn  that  the  committee  simply  ignores 
mittee  most  of  them.  If  the  proposed  measure  is 
"^  *"  important,  and  has  numerous  supporters  in 
Congress,  the  committee  may  consider  it  for  some  time, 
and  then  vote  on  the  question  of  reporting  it ;  that 
is,  recommending  that  the  House  pass  the  bill.  If  the 
committee  is  unfavorable  to  the  measure,  it  has  prac- 
tically no  chance  of  being  passed ;  the  bill  is  then 
said  to  have  been  "killed  in  committee." 

If  favorably  acted  on  by  the  committee,  the  bill 
is  reported  back  to  the  House  or  Senate  with  the  re- 
commendation that  it  be  passed.  It  is  then  read  a 
second  time  by  the  clerk,  and  placed  upon  the  legis' 
lative  calendar,  where  it  must  await  its  turn  for  con- 


CONGRESS  AND   ITS   WORK  171 

sideration  along  with  hundreds  of  other  bills.  The 
calendar  has  been  called  "  the  cemetery  of  legislative 
hopes,"  because  so  many  measures  are  buried  there. 
If  the  bill  escapes  this  fate,  it  may  finally  come  up 
for  the  third  reading,  and  for  debate  on  the  question 
whether  it  shall  pass. 

i86.  Debate  in  Congress.  Debate  in  the  House  is 
restricted  in  many  ways,  because  the  size  of  that  body 
makes  it  necessary  to  limit  debate  in  order  that  any- 
thing may  be  accomplished.  So  the  chairman  of  the 
committee  in  charge  of  the  bill  generally  arranges 
with  the  Speaker  which  members  shall  be  recognized 
for  the  discussion  of  the  measure.  After  they  have 
been  heard,  the  debate  is  closed,  and  the  House  votes 
on  the  bill.  Since  the  Senate  is  a  smaller  body,  more 
freedom  of  debate  can  be  allowed.  Senators  may 
speak  as  long  as  they  please  upon  any  measure;  and 
they  sometimes  "kill"  a  bill  by  insisting  upon  their 
right  to  debate  it  indefinitely. 

187.  Methods  of  Voting.  Votes  in  Congress  are 
taken  in  one  of  three  ways  :  (1)  The  presiding  officer 
may  call  for  the  "ayes,"  then  for  the  "noes,"  and 
decide  by  the  volume  of  sound  whether  the  motion 
has  been  carried.  (2)  By  a  rising  vote,  the  members 
for  and  against  the  bill  being  counted  by  tellers. 
(3)  In  case  of  all  important  measures,  or  whenever 
one  fifth  of  the  members  demand  it,  the  vote  is  by 
roll-call,  each  member  answering  "aye"  or  "no"  as 
his  name  is  called  by  the  clerk.  The  vote  of  each 
member  is  then  recorded  in  the  journal,  and  the 
voters  in  each  district  may  ascertain  how  their  repre- 
sentative has  voted  on  the  measure. 


172  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

i88.  Joint  Action  necessary.  If  the  bill  receives  a 
majority  vote,  it  is  then  sent  to  the  other  house, 
where  the  same  process  is  repeated ;  for  in  order  to 
become  a  law,  the  bill  must  be  passed  by  both  houses 
in  the  same  identical  form.  If  one  house  amends  or 
changes  a  bill  passed  by  the  other,  it  must  go  back 
to  the  house  where  it  originated  for  approval  in  its 
amended  form.  In  case  of  serious  disagreement  be- 
oonJerence  tween  the  two  houscs  on  an  important  meas- 
committees  ^p^^  ^  conference  committee  is  appointed, 
composed  of  members  from  each  house.  This  com- 
mittee endeavors  to  adjust  the  differences,  and  report 
a  bill  satisfactory  to  both  branches. 

189.  The  President's  Veto.  Every  bill  which  has 
passed  both  houses  of  Congress  must  be  submitted  to 
the  President  for  his  approval.  As  a  rule,  the  Presi- 
dent signs  the  measures  submitted  to  him,  and  his 
signature  makes  the  bill  a  law.  But  if  he  disapproves 
the  measure,  he  may  veto  it;  that  is,  he  sends  it  back 
to  the  house  where  it  originated,  with  a  written  state- 
ment of  his  objections.  The  bill  cannot  then  become 
a  law  unless  it  is  passed  by  a  two-thirds  vote  in  each 
house. ^ 

If  the  President  does  not  really  approve  the  meas- 
ure, but  does  not  desire  to  veto  it,  he  may  omit  either 
to  sign  the  bill,  or  to  return  it  within  the  ten  days 
allowed  him  in  which  to  consider  legislation.  The 
measure  then  becomes  a  law  without  his  signature. 

190.  Influence  of  Political  Parties.  Political  parties 
play  an  important  part  in  the  making  of  our  laws. 

^  For  the  first  passao^e  of  a  measure,  only  a  majority  vote  is  neces- 
sary ;  but  if  the  President  vetoes  it,  a  two-thirds  vote  in  each  house  is 
necessary  to  pass  the  bill  over  his  veto. 


CONGRESS  AND  ITS  WORK  173 

We  have  seen  that  each  of  the  political  parties  pre- 
sents to  the  voters  a  platform  or  declaration  of  policies 
which  it  promises  to  carry  out,  provided  its  candi- 
dates are  elected.  If  the  President  and  both  houses 
of  Congress  are  of  the  same  political  faith,  then  that 
party  is  clearly  responsible  for  all  legislation  enacted. 
In  the  Sixty-second  Congress,  the  House  was  Demo- 
cratic, while  the  Senate  and  the  President  were  Re- 
publican. Under  such  conditions,  party  measures  can- 
not be  passed  except  by  gaining  some  votes  from 
the  opposition;  and  hence  legislation  is  likely  to  be 
in  the  nature  of  a  compromise. 

In  the  Sixty-second  Congress,  a  bill  was  passed  by 
the  Democratic  House,  after  having  been  reported 
favorably  by  the  Ways  and  Means  Com-  compromise 
mittee,  reducing  the  tariff  on  wool.  The  i«e*siation 
Republican  Senate,  while  opposed  to  the  reduction 
provided  in  the  House  bill,  was  willing  to  accept  a 
lower  rate  of  duty;  and  both  houses  finally  agreed 
upon  and  passed  a  compromise  measure.  This  was 
vetoed  by  President  Taf  t,  and  returned  to  the  House, 
where  it  was  repassed  by  a  two-thirds  vote.  How- 
ever, the  majority  necessary  to  pass  the  bill  over  the 
veto  could  not  be  obtained  in  the  Senate,  and  hence 
the  measure  failed  to  become  a  law. 

Another  important  act  of  this  Congress  was  that 
establishing  a  Parcel  Post.  This  measure  was  passed 
by  both  houses  and  signed  by  the  President,  thereby 
becoming  a  law. 

When  an  important  measure  is  about  to  be  con- 
sidered, members  of  each  political  party  often  hold 
a  "  caucus,"  or  meeting  of  all  the  party  members  in 


174  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

Congress,  to  discuss  the  bill  and  decide  what  action 
The  party  ^^^^^  ^®  taken.  The  decision  made  by  the 
oauous  caucus  is  held  to  be  binding  on  all  regular 
party  members. 

191.  Powers  of  Congress.  If  we  wish  to  find  out 
what  laws  Congress  may  pass,  we  must  examine  the 
federal  constitution  ;  for  Congress  may  exercise  only 
the  powers  granted  by  the  constitution,  or  which  are 
necessarily  implied  as  a  result  of  powers  expressly 
granted.  The  powers  of  Congress  are  enumerated  in 
the  federal  constitution,  Article  I,  Section  8,  and  in 
Article  IV,  Section  3.  Among  the  most  important  are 
the  following :  — 

(1)  Power  to  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  na- 
tions and  among  the  several  States. 

(2)  To  coin  money  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights 
and  measures. 

(3)  To  levy  taxes. 

(4)  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United 
States. 

(5)  To  establish  post  of&ces  and  post  roads. 

(6)  To  raise  and  support  armies,  and  to  maintain  a 
navy. 

(7)  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  in  case  of 
foreign  invasion,  or  serious  domestic  violence. 

(8)  To  declare  war. 

(9)  To  make  rules  for  the  government  of  territories 
and  other  property  belonging  to  the  United 
States. 

(10)  To  legislate  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  United  States. 

(11)  To  admit  new  States  into  the  Union. 


CONGRESS  AND  ITS  WORK  175 


QUESTIONS   FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Name  the  Senators  from  your  State.  How  long  have  they 
served  ?  When  do  their  terms  expire  ?  To  which  political  party 
do  they  belong  ?  What  political  offices  did  they  hold  before 
being  elected  to  the  Senate  ? 

2.  Were  your  Senators  nominated  by  conventions,  or  by  party 
primaries  ?  Which  plan  do  you  consider  the  better  one,  and 
why? 

3.  Give  arguments  for  and  against  the  popular  election  of 
Senators. 

4.  How  are  the  political  parties  represented  in  the  present  Sen- 
ate ?  Name  several  of  the  most  prominent  Senators  of  each 
party. 

5.  Which  of  the  special  powers  of  the  United  States  Senate  is 
exercised  by  your  State  senate  ? 

6.  Prepare  a  list  of  executive  officials  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Senate. 

7.  What  officials  in  your  congressional  district  were  thus  ap- 
pointed ?   Was  your  Senator  consulted  ? 

3.  Name  several  treaties  which  have  been  ratified  by  the  Senate 
within  the  last  twenty  years.   Have  any  been  rejected  ? 

9.  What  is  tlie  smallest  number  of  Senators  who  at  the  present 
time  can  pass  a  bill  ?  Confirm  an  appointment  ?  Ratify  a 
treaty  ? 

10.  Prepare  a  report  upon  the  impeachment  trial  of  Andrew 
Johnson.  (Sherman,  Recollections,  i,  pp.  413-432  ;  Blaine, 
Twenty  Years  of  Congress,  ii,  pp.  341-384 ;  Cox,  Three 
Decades  of  Federal  Legislation,  pp.  578-594.) 

11.  May  a  Senator  be  appointed  to  a  federal  office  which  was 
created  during  his  term  as  Senator  ?  (Constitution,  Art.  I, 
Sec.  6,  Par.  2.) 

12.  How  many  congressional  districts  in  your  State  ?  How  do 
these  compare  in  area  and  population  ?  Is  the  division  a  fair 
one,  or  has  ).he  gerrymander  been  employed  in  the  interest 
of  the  dominant  political  party  ? 

13.  Who  is  your  Representative  ?  To  which  political  party  does 
he  belong  ?  Length  of  his  service  in  Congress  ?  Previous 
political  experience  ?  When  does  his  term  expire  ? 

14.  What  is  the  number  of  your  congressional  district  ?  What 
counties  does  it  comprise  ?  Which  political  party  generally 
carries  the  district? 

15.  Was  your  Representative  nominated  by  a  party  convention 
or  by  a  direct  primary  ?  Which  is  the  better  method  ? 


176  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

16.  Compare  the  special  powers  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
with  the  special  powers  of  the  lower  branch  of  your  State 
legislature. 

17.  "What  is  the  smallest  number  of  Representatives  who  can  pass 
a  bill  for  the  first  time  ?  Over  the  President's  veto  ? 

18.  What  qualifications  are  required  in  your  State  in  order  to 
permit  one  to  vote  for  a  United  States  Representative  ?  How 
are  these  qualifications  determined  ? 

19.  Compare  the  term  and  qualifications  of  a  United  States  Repre- 
sentative with  those  of  your  representative  in  the  State  legis- 
lature. 

20.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  our  practice 
of  requiring  a  Representative  to  reside  in  the  district  which 
elects  him  ? 

21.  Contrast  the  procedure  in  the  House  of  Representatives  with 
that  in  the  British  House  of  Commons  (Kaye,  P.  Li., Headings, 
pp.  149-155.) 

22.  What  is  the  number  of  the  present  Congress  ?  When  does  its 
term  begin  and  end  ?  When  is  the  long  session  ?  The  short 
session  ? 

23.  Which  political  party  has  control  in  each  house  ?  Name  promi- 
nent party  leaders  in  each  house. 

24.  Contrast  the  position  of  the  Speaker  of  the  House  with  that 
of  the  President  of  the  Senate. 

25.  Who  is  the  Speaker  of  the  present  House  ?  From  what  State 
does  he  come  ?  Are  Speakers  frequently  reelected  ?  What 
Speaker  served  longest  in  this  position  ? 

26.  What  are  the  advantages  and  defects  of  the  committee  system 
of  legislation? 

27.  Name  tlie  most  important  committees  of  each  branch  of 
Congress,  and  their  chairmen.  (See  the  latest  Congressional 
Directory.) 

28.  Contrast  the  rules  of  the  Senate  and  House  concerning  debate. 

29.  Prepare  an  outline  showing  (a)  the  principal  subjects  of 
federal  legislation;  (b)  of  State  legislation;  (c)  of  local 
legislation. 

30.  What  do  you  understand  by  each  of  the  following  terms : 
the  lobby;  filibustering;  logrolling;  party  caucuses;  strike 
bills ;  riders  ? 


THE   WHITE   HOUSE 

This  was  the  first  public  building  erected  after  the  seat  of  government  was  moved  to  "Washing- 
ton. The  corner-stone  was  laid  by  President  Wa,shington,  Oct.  13,  1792.  The  first  President 
to  occupy  it  was  John  Adams,  in  1800.  Alterations  and  additions  were  made  in  1902-3  and 
a  new  building  for  the  Executive  OflBces  erected;  this  is  connected  with  the  White  House  by 
an  esplanade. 


^^W^^mn 


^uiz"'  '■  "  ' 


Mam 

MRfflfflrifrrr 


«  1^  I 


THE  STATE,  WAR,  AND  NAVY  DEPARTMENTS 


This  structure  ranks  with  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  office  buildings  in  the  world.    It 
has  five  hundred  rooms  and  two  miles  of  marble  halls. 


IftBiRiSliiliimr 


THE   POST-OFFICE   DEPARTMENT 


h^      '  • .  u'  H  r  If  J  1 11  f  "^  -  r  1    -    -    -      [ 

/''^        'i»*^ 

J 

THE  TREASURY  DEPARTMENT 
This  ia  second  only  to  the  National  Capitol  itself  in  architectural  importance. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE   PRESIDENT   AND    HIS    CABINET 

192.  The  President's  Position  and  Powers.  The 

commanding  figure  in  our  national  government  is  the 
President.  Elected  as  the  representative  of  a  free  na- 
tion to  enforce  its  laws,  he  is  more  powerful  than  the 
ruler  of  any  old-world  monarchy.  He  appoints  the 
principal  executive  officers  of  our  government,  directs 
their  work,  and  removes  them  at  his  discretion.  He 
wields  the  entire  military  power  of  the  Republic,  and 
may  set  fleets  and  armies  in  motion.  He  conducts  our 
intercourse  with  foreign  nations,  appoints  and  receives 
ambassadors,  and  concludes  treaties.  Finally,  his  veto 
upon  legislation  will  thwart  even  the  will  of  Congress ; 
for  the  constitution  authorizes  and  the  people  expect 
him  to  weigh  every  legislative  act,  and  judge  for  him- 
self whether  the  proposed  law  will  promote  the  public 
welfare. 

193.  National     Nominating    Conventions.     The 
presidential  election  is  held  in   November^  of  each 
fourth  year,  the  voters  casting  their  ballots  selection  oi 
for  candidates  previously  nominated  by  party  "delegates 
conventions.  In  the  early  summer  of  the  presidential 
years,  each  political  party  holds  its  national  conven- 

^  The  presidential  election  is  held  on  the  Tuesday  followinsr  the  first 
Monday  in  November  of  each  fourth  year,  counting  from  1900.  The 
election  of  Conp^ressmen  is  held  on  the  same  day  of  every  second  year  ; 
so  that  every  other  congressional  election  is  held  on  the  same  dny  as 
the  presidential  election. 


178  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

tion  for  the  nomination  of  presidential  candidates. 
Over  one  thousand  delegates  attend  the  convention, 
since  each  State  and  territory  sends  twice  as  many 
delegates  as  it  has  members  in  Congress.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  hold  the  national  conventions  in  immense 
auditoriums,  so  as  to  accommodate  ten  or  fifteen  thou- 
sand spectators,  in  addition  to  nearly  two  thousand 
delegates  and  alternates. 

The  two  principal  duties  of  the  convention  are  the 
adoption  of  a  platform  and  the  nomination  of  candi- 
dates. The  platform  is  a  formal  statement  of 

The  process  >  •       i 

oinomina-  the  party  s  attitude  on  questions  or  the  day. 
After  the  adoption  of  the  platform,  the  next 
step  is  the  selection  of  candidates.  Usually  eight  or  ten 
names  are  placed  before  the  contention,  each  name 
being  received  with  prolonged  cheering  on  the  part 
of  the  delegates  and  spectators.  The  roll  of  the  States 
is  then  called  alphabetically,  and  the  chairman  of  each 
State  delegation  in  turn  announces  the  vote  of  his 
State.  Sometimes  a  candidate  is  nominated  by  accla- 
mation, but  as  a  rule  many  ballots  are  necessary  to 
decide  the  contest.  If  none  of  the  leading  candidates 
is  successful  on  the  first  few  ballots,  a  "dark  horse" 
or  comparatively  obscure  man  may  finally  be  named 
as  a  compromise  candidate. 

After  the  pandemonium  which  follows  the  nomina- 
tion has  subsided, — generally  after  a  recess,  —  the 
convention  proceeds  in  the  same  manner  to 
avice-Pre-  nominate  a  candidate  for  the  vice-presi- 
dency. This  nomination  seldom  receives  the 
careful  consideration  which  it  deserves.  It  is  often 
given  to  a  man  in  the  hope  that  he  may  be  able  to 


THE  PRESIDENT  AND  mS  CABINET         179 

carry  a  doubtful  State,  or  to  placate  a  faction  in  the 
party  which  has  been  opposed  to  the  presidential 
nominee. 

194.  The  Presidential  Campaign.  After  each 
party  has  nominated  its  candidates  for  President  and 
Vice-President,  popular  interest  centers  in  the  cam- 
paign waged  from  the  time  the  convention  adjourns 
until  the  election  in  November.  Campaign  funds 
which  run  into  the  millions  are  raised,  political  meet- 
ings are  held  in  every  State  and  city,  stump  speakers 
address  the  voters,  the  newspapers  take  sides  and 
often  become  bitterly  partisan,  an  immense  number 
of  circulars,  campaign  "  text-books,"  and  other  adver- 
tisements are  sent  out  from  the  national  headquarters, 
political  clubs  are  organized,  and  every  effort  is  made 
by  each  party  to  influence  the  voters  in  favor  of  its 
candidates.  All  of  this  work  is  carried  on  by  the 
national  party  committee  chosen  by  the  nominating 
convention  to  manage  the  political  campaign. 

195.  Election  of  a  President.  Following  the  nomi- 
nating convention  and  the  campaign,  there  are  three 
steps  in  the  election  of  a  President.  The  first  presidential 
takes  place  on  the  Tuesday  following  the  «^®''^°" 
first  Monday  in  November.  On  this  day  the  voters  cast 
their  ballots  for  presidential  electors,  each  State  having 
as  many  electors  as  it  has  Senators  and  Representatives 
in  Congress.  In  each  State,  the  official  ballot  contains 
two  or  more  lists  of  presidential  electors,  generally 
printed  beneath  the  party  name  and  emblem.  If  the 
Republican  electors  in  Pennsylvania,  for  example, 
receive  a  plurality  of  the  popular  vote  in  that  State, 
it  is  understood  that  they  will  cast  the  thirty-eight 


180  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

electoral  votes  of  Pennsylvania  for  the  Republican  can- 
didates for  President  and  Vice-President.  If  Demo- 
cratic electors  are  chosen  in  Texas,  they  will  of  course 
cast  the  twenty  electoral  votes  of  that  State  for  the 
Democratic  candidates. 

196.  Second  Step  in  electing  a  President.  Since 
the  electors  are  nominated  for  the  express  purpose  of 
Meeting  of  voting  for  the  party's  candidates,  the  presi- 
the  elector!  (Jential  election  is  really  decided  when  the 
electors  are  chosen.  But  the  framers  of  the  constitu- 
tion expected  that  the  electors  would  deliberate,  and 
select  from  the  principal  candidates  for  the  presidency 
and  the  vice-presidency,  the  men  best  qualified  for  the 
office.  They  could  not  foresee  the  rise  of  political 
parties,  or  anticipate  that  the  party  system  would 
prevent  the  electors  from  using  any  discretion  in 
casting  their  votes. 

Accordingly,  the  electors  meet  and  cast  their  votes 
as  prescribed  by  the  constitution,  even  though  their 
voting  is  a  mere  form.  In  each  State,  the  successful 
electors  meet  at  the  State  capital  about  two  months 
after  the  presidential  election,  and  cast  the  vote  of 
their  State  for  President  and  for  Vice-President.  Or- 
dinarily this  meeting  of  the  electors  attracts  little 
attention,  for  the  outcome  is  usually  known  the  day 
after  the  electors  are  chosen  in  November. 

197.  Third  Step  in  electing  a  President.  Finally, 
the  third  step  consists  in  counting  the  electoral  votes 

at  Washington,  the  vote  of  each  State  hav- 
the  electoral  ing  been  forwarded  for  that  purpose.   On  the 

second  Wednesday  in  February,  both  houses 
of  Congress  assemble  in  the  hall  of  the  House  of  Repre- 


THE  PRESIDENT  AND   HIS   CABINET         181 

Bentatives;  and  in  the  presence  of  both  houses,  the 
electoral  vote  of  each  State  is  opened  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate,  and  counted.  The  result  of  the 
election  is  then  formally  announced,  a  majority  of  all 
the  electoral  votes  being  necessary  to  a  choice.^ 

198.  Election  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 
If  no  candidate  has  a  majority  of  the  electoral  voteSr 
the  House  of  Representatives  proceeds  to  votei)y 
elect  a  President  from  the  three  candidates  ®**^®* 
having  the  highest  number  of  electoral  votes.  The 
vote  in  the  House  is  taken  by  States,  the  delegation 
from  each  commonwealth  having  one  vote ;  and  a 
majority  of  all  the  States  is  necessary  to  a  choice.^  In 
case  the  House  does  not  choose  a  President  before 
the  4th  of  March,  the  newly  elected  Vice-President 
becomes  President. 

If  no  candidate  for  Vice-President  receives  a  ma- 
jority of  the  electoral  votes,  the  Senate  elects  a  Vice- 
President  from  the  two  candidates  having  the  largest 
electoral  vote. 

199.  The  Inaugural  Ceremony.  The  President- 
elect usually  goes  to  Washington  a  short  time  before 
March  4th,  on  which  day  the  inaugural  ceremony 
occurs.  On  the  day  of  the  inauguration,  he  is  escorted 
by  the  committee  in  charge  to  the  Executive  Mansion 
or  White  House;  and  then,  accompanied  by  the  out- 
going President,  he  proceeds  to  the  Capitol. 

The  constitution  requires  that  before  entering  upon 

^  At  present  the  total  number  of  electoral  votes  in  531,  so  that  266 
Totes  are  necessary  to  elect  a  President  or  a  Vice-President. 

2  Jefferson  in  1800,  and  John  Quincy  Adams  in  1824,  were  elected 
by  the  House  of  Representatives,  no  candidate  having  been  chosen  by 
the  electors. 


18«  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

his  duties  the  President  shall  take  the  following  oath : 
Oath  oi  "  I  ^o  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will 
office  faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of 

the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability 
preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States." 

A  platform  is  erected  on  the  east  front  of  the  Capi- 
tol, and  here  in  the  presence  of  immense  throngs  of 
Inaugural  people  the  oath  is  administered  by  the  Chief 
address  Justice  of  the  United  States.  The  President 
then  delivers  an  address  outlining  his  proposed  poli- 
cies. This  concludes  the  inaugural  ceremony  proper, 
after  which  the  President  returns  to  the  White  House, 
and  reviews  a  procession  which  is  generally  several 
hours  in  passing. 

200.  Presidential  Term,  Salary,  and  Qualifica- 
tions. The  President  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four 
years,  and  popular  Presidents  are  sometimes 
chosen  for  a  second  term.^  Both  Washington 
and  Jefferson  refused  a  third  term,  thus  establishing 
a  precedent  which  probably  will  prevent  any  President 
from  being  chosen  for  a  third  term. 

The  President  receives  a  salary  of  $75,000  a  year, 
and  Congress  makes  an  appropriation  for  cer- 
tain expenses  incidental  to  the  presidential 
office.  The  annual  salary  of  the  Vice-President  is 
$12,000. 

The  constitution  requires  that  the  President  shall 

1  Nine  Presidents  have  been  reelected  as  their  own  successors, 
namely  :  Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe,  Jackson,  Lincoln, 
Grant, McKinley,  and  Wilson;  President  Cleveland  was  reelected  after 
an  intervening  term ;  and  Roosevelt  was  elected  President  after  he 
had  succeeded  to  the  office  upon  the  assassination  of  McKinley. 


THE   PRESIDENT  AND   HIS   CABINET  183 

be  a  native-born  citizen  of  the  United  States,  at  least 
thirty-five  years  of  age,  and  a  resident  of  the  Quaiuica- 
United  States  for  fourteen  years.^  As  a  rule,  **°^" 
only  men  of  proven  ability  and  experience  in  political 
life  are  chosen  for  this  high  office.  On  a  few  occa- 
sions, the  great  prize  has  gone  to  a  prominent  general 
because  of  his  military  record,  and  sometimes  to  a 
comparatively  obscure  candidate  nominated  because 
it  was  thought  that  he  could  probably  win  the  elec- 
tion. 

201.  The  Presidential  Succession.  If  the  Presi- 
dent dies,  his  place  is  taken  by  the  Vice-President, 
who  is  chosen  at  the  same  time,  and  who  The  vice- 
usually  belongs  to  the  same  political  party.  P"si<i8»cy 
The  vice-presidency  was  created  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  a  successor  to  the  President  in  case  of  the 
death,  resignation,  or  removal  of  that  officer.^  Five 
times  in  our  history  has  the  Vice-President  succeeded 
the  President.  By  the  death  of  Harrison  in  1841  and 
of  Taylor  in  1850,  Tyler  and  Fillmore,  respectively, 
became  Presidents.  By  the  assassination  of  Lincoln  in 
1865,  of  Garfield  in  1881,  and  of  McKinley  in  1901, 
Johnson,  Arthur,  and  Eoosevelt,  respectively,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  presidency. 

In  case  of  the  death  of  both  President  and  Vice- 
President,  Congress  has  provided  by  law  for  the  suc- 
cession of  the  cabinet  officers  in  the  follow-  succession 
ing  order :  Secretary  of  State,  Secretary  of  omcers 
the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Attorney-General, 

^  The  Vice-President  must  have  the  same  qualifications,  since  ho 
inay  succeed  to  the  presidency. 

*  The  Vice-President  also  presides  over  the  Senate. 


184  PREPARING   FOR   CITIZENSHIP 

Postmaster-General,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Secretary 
of  the  Interior.^ 

202.  Military  Powers.  By  virtue  of  his  office,  the 
President  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy 
presideat  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  miUtia  of 
maTdCT-  t^^6  several  States  when  called  into  federal 
in-chiei  service.  He  appoints  and  commissions  all 
officers,  and  through  the  Secretary  of  War  issues 
orders  for  the  disposition  of  the  military  and  naval 
forces.  He  may  send  a  fleet  of  United  States  battle- 
ships on  a  cruise  around  the  globe,  as  did  President 
Roosevelt ;  or  may  order  troops  to  the  Mexican  bor- 
der, as  was  done  by  President  Wilson.  Power  to  de- 
clare war  is  vested  solely  in  Congress ;  but  the  Presi- 
dent may  so  conduct  our  foreign  policy  as  to  make 
war  almost  inevitable. 

In  time  of  actual  war,  the  President's  powers  as 
commander-in-chief  are  almost  unlimited.  He  may  call 
^ar  for  volunteers,  order  out  the  militia  from  the 

power*  several  States,  authorize  a  draft  if  these 
forces  prove  inadequate,  declare  our  ports  blockaded, 
and  proclaim  martial  law.  It  is  not  expected  that  the 
President  will  take  the  field  in  person,  but  through 
the  Department  of  War  he  directs  all  movements 
and  plans  all  campaigns.  During  the  greatest  crisis 
of  our  national  history,  the  Civil  War,  President 
Lincoln  had  the  supreme  command  of  armies  which 
numbered  over  a  million  men. 

203.  Duty  to  enforce  the  Laws.  The  foremost 
duty  of  the  President  is  to  take  care  that  the  laws  of 

^  In  order  that  a  cabinet  officer  may  succeed  to  the  presidency,  it 
is  necessary  that  he  shall  have  the  constitutional  qualifications  pre- 
scribed for  that  office. 


THE   PRESIDENT  AND   HIS   CABINET         185 

Congress  are  faithfully  executed.  Ordinarily,  our  laws 
are  enforced  by  civil  officers ;  offenders  against       ^^ 
federal  laws  are  arrested  by  United  States  law  en- 
marshals  and  tried  in   the  national  courts. 
In  case  of  serious  disorder  which  cannot  be  suppressed 
by  the  marshal  and  his  deputies,  the  President  may 
employ  regular  troops,  or  call  out  the  militia.  For 
example,  during  the  railway  strikes  of  1877  and  1894, 
the  President  ordered  out   regular  troops  to  protect 
government  property,  and  to  make  possible  the  trans- 
portation of  the  mail. 

In  case  of  violence  which  the  State  militia  cannot 
suppress,  the  President  will  send  federal  troops  to  any 
State  on  request  of  the  s^overnor  or  State 

1       .  1  p  1       r«    1        1  •        •  1        Protection 

leo^islature ;  tor  the  federal  constitution  de-  of  the 
elares  that  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  United 
States  to  protect  each  State  against  foreign  invasion 
or  domestic  violence. 

204.  The  President's  Appointing  Power.  For  the 
first  few  weeks  after  the  inauguration,  a  new  Presi- 
dent often  receives  more  than  fifteen  hun-  „^ 

The  army 

dred  letters  a  day.  A  large  part  of  this  oiomce- 
enormous  mail  is  from  men  who  want  office  ; 
and  a  great  many  applicants  go  to  Washington  for  a 
personal  interview  with  the  President.  The  situation 
is  not  quite  so  bad  as  in  the  days  of  William  Henry 
Harrison,  who,  it  is  said,  was  harried  to  death  by  the 
place-hunters;  but  the  matter, of  appointments  is  a 
serious  tax  on  the  time  and  strength  of  the  new 
President. 

Subject  to  approval  by  the  Senate,  the  President 
appoints  about  ten  thousand  federal  officers,  includ 


186  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

ing  cabinet  officers,  ambassadors,  consuls,  federal 
Howap-  jud^^s,  district  attorneys.  United  States  mar- 
SJi^Sde*^  shals,  military  and  naval  officers,  land  agents, 
Indian  agents,  and  many  others.  Before 
making  an  appointment,  the  President  ordinarily  con- 
fers with  the  Senators  from  the  State  in  which  the 
appointee  lives,  provided  the  Senators  belong  to  the 
same  political  party  as  the  President.  That  is  to  say, 
if  a  Republican  President  is  about  to  appoint  a  citi- 
zen of  New  York  to  a  federal  office,  he  first  consults 
the  Senators  from  New  York  (if  they  are  Republi- 
cans) ;  for,  as  a  rule,  the  Senate  will  not  confirm  an 
appointment  unless  it  is  approved  by  the  Senators 
from  the  State  in  which  the  appointee  lives.^ 

205.  The  Spoils  System.  In  earlier  times,  begin- 
ning with  Jackson's  first  administration  (1829-1833), 
the  "  Spoils  System  "  prevailed,  under  which  public 
offices  were  used  as  rewards  for  faithful  party  service. 
"  To  the  victors,"  declared  Senator  W.  L.  Marcy  of 
New  York,  "  belong  the  spoils  of  the  enemy."  As  a 
result  of  turning  out  government  officials  at  the  be- 
ginning of  each  new  administration,  and  appointing 
men  chosen  from  personal  and  political  motives,  the 
public  service  became  greatly  demoralized. 

206.  Civil  Service  Reform.  Public  opinion  at 
length  compelled  a  change;  and  in  1883  Congress 

passed  the  Civil  Service  Act,  which  makes 
appointment  to  office,  as  well  as  tenure  and 

^  This  is  the  so-called  rule  of  "  Senatorial  courtesy,"  by  which  is 
meant  that  the  Senate  as  a  body  will  not  confirm  an  appointee  who  is 
objectionable  to  the  Senators  from  the  State  in  which  the  appointee 
lives.  In  practice  the  rule  ji^ives  the  Senators  a  large  share  in  the  power- 
of  appointment,  and  enables  them  to  control  the  patronage  (appoint- 
ments) of  their  own  State. 


THE   PRESIDENT  AND   HIS   CABINET  187 

promotion,  depend  upon  efficiency,  rather  than  upon 
party  service.  This  act  establishes  a  Civil  Service 
Commission  of  three  members,  who  conduct  com- 
petitive examinations  for  all  positions  in  the  classi- 
fied service.  Appointments  are  made  from  those 
applicants  whose  papers  are  graded  highest  on  the 
civil  service  examination ;  and  appointees  cannot  be 
removed  except  for  inefficiency. 

About  three  fifths  of  the  total  number  of  employees 
of  the  national  government  are  now  under  civil  service 
rules.  The  merit  system  of  appointment  has  greatly 
improved  the  public  service ;  and  a  similar  plan  has 
been  adopted  in  many  cities  for  appointments  to 
municipal  office. 

207.  The  President's  Power  of  Removal.  As  a 
rule,  the  officers  appointed  by  the  President  may  be 
removed  by  him  for  reasons  which  he  deems  sufficient. 
Cabinet  officers  serve  during  his  pleasure ;  federal 
marshals,  district  attorneys,  land  agents,  and  post- 
masters in  the  larger  cities,  generally  serve  for  four 
years,  unless  the  President  sees  fit  to  replace  them. 
Subordinate  officials  under  the  civil  service  hold  of- 
fice as  long  as  they  serve  efficiently.  Federal  judges, 
as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter,  are  appointed 
for  life,  and  can  be  removed  only  by  impeach- 
ment. 

208.  Diplomatic   Powers.    Foreign   relations   are 
entrusted  to  the  President  and  the  Senate.  The  Presi- 
dent appoints  our  foreign  representatives,  the 
ambassadors  and  ministers,  who  act  as  diplo-  dors  and 
matic  representatives ;  and  the  consuls,  who 

look  after  our  commercial  interests  abroad.    These 


188  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

appointments  must  be  confirmed  by  a  majority  vote 
of  the  Senate. 

The  President,  acting  through  the  Secretary  of 
State,  negotiates  treaties  with  foreign  countries.  The 
Negotiauon  Secretary  of  State  generally  carries  on  treaty 
of  treaties  negotiations  with  the  representative  of  the 
foreign  power  resident  at  Washington,  although  some- 
times treaties  are  negotiated  through  our  minister  at 
the  foreign  capital.  The  Senate  Committee  on  Foreign 
Relations  is  usually  consulted  by  the  President  while 
negotiations  are  in  progress,  otherwise  the  Senate  may 
disapprove  the  treaty,  as  sometimes  happens.  In  order 
to  become  binding,  treaties  must  receive  the  affirma- 
tive vote  of  two  thirds  of  the  Senate. 

209.  The  President's  Powers  in  Legislation.  Al- 
though primarily  an  executive  officer,  the  President 
has  three  important  powers  in  legislation.  (1)  In  case 
of  emergency,  he  may  summon  Congress  to  meet  in 
special  session.  (2)  He  has  the  power  to  recommend 
to  Congress  legislation  which  he  considers  desirable. 
This  the  President  does  by  sending  a  carefully  pre- 
pared annual  message  to  Congress;  and  he  also  sub- 
mits special  messages  from  time  to  time,  as  occasion 
demands.  (3)  Finally,  the  President  has  the  import- 
ant power  of  veto  upon  any  measure  passed  by  Con- 
gress. This  veto  may  be  overcome  if  each  house  of 
Congress  again  passes  the  measure  by  a  two-thirds 
vote;  but  in  practice  few  measures  can  be  passed  over 
the  veto  (Sec.  189). 

210.  The  Pardoning  Power.  The  President  has 
the  power  to  pardon  offenses  against  the  United 
States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment.  He  may  also 


THE   PRESIDENT  AND   HIS   CABINET  189 

grant  reprieves,  that  is,  suspend  the  execution  of  a 
sentence  which  has  been  imposed. 

211.  The  President's  Cabinet.  Ten  federal  execu- 
tive departments  have  been  created  by  Congress  to 
assist  the  President  in  his  work.  The  heads  of  these 
departments  are  appointed  by  the  President,  and  form 
his  cabinet.  They  hold  office  during  his  pleasure,  and 
are  his  confidential  advisers.  The  cabinet  meets  twice 
a  week  at  the  White  House  to  discuss  important  pub- 
lic business.  Special  meetings  are  called  as  needed, 
and  the  President  advises  frequently  with  individual 
cabinet  officers. 

The  executive  departments  were  organized  by  Con- 
gress in  the  following  order:  State,  1789;  War,  1789; 
Treasury,  1789;  Post  Office,  1794;  Navy,  1798;  In- 
terior, 1849;  Justice,  1870;  Agriculture,  1889;  Com- 
merce, 1903;  Labor,  1913. 

212.  Executive  Departments.  The  Secretary  of 
State  ranks  first  among  the  members  of  the  cabinet. 
His  chief  duty  is  to  conduct  the  foreign  Department 
affairs  of  the  government  under  the  direction  °*  s^^® 
of  the  President.  The  Secretary  of  State  also  has 
charge  of  the  publication  of  federal  statutes  and 
executive  proclamations. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  supervises  the  na- 
tional finances,  and  keeps  a  record  of  all  receipts 
and  expenditures  of  public  funds.  He  looks  Treasury 
after  the  making  of  paper  money,  controls  Department 
the  mints,  collects  internal  revenue  and  customs 
duties,  inspects  the  national  banks,  and  supervises 
the  construction  of-  public  buildings  erected  by  the 
federal  government. 


100  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

The  Secretary  of  War  and  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  have  charge  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
army  and  navy.  Each  of  these  Secretaries 
NavyDe-  is  the  direct  representative  of  the  President, 
who  under  the  constitution  is  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  and  the  navy  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Attorney-General  is  the  head  of  the  Depart- 
D«partm«iit  i^^nt  of  Justicc.  He  is  the  legal  adviser  of 
oijusuce  ^ijg  President  and  the  cabinet  officers,  and 
represents  the  government  in  all  cases  to  which  the 
United  States  is  a  party. 

The  Postmaster- General  has  charge  of  the  postal 
service,  with  its  army  of  three  hundred  thousand  em- 
post-office  ployees.  The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  has 
DepS-"^"  charge  of  the  public  lands,  pensions,  patents, 
ments  copyrights,  Indian  affairs,  and  the  educa- 
tional work  carried  on  by  the  national  government. 
He  also  manages  the  forest  reserves,  allots  farms 
under  the  Homestead  Act,  and  supervises  the  con- 
struction of  irrigation  projects. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  directs  the  investiga- 
tions and  experiments  designed  to  give  farmers  useful 
information  concerning  soils,  grains,  fruits, 
ofAgricui-  and  stock.  This  department  has  charge  of 
the  inspection  of  domestic  meats  and  im- 
ported food  products.  One  of  its  most  important 
branches  is  the  weather  bureau,  which  renders  valua- 
ble service  in  forecasting  storms,  thereby  preventing 
heavy  losses  to  agriculture  and  commerce. 

The  Secretary  of  Commerce  aims  to  develop  the 
commerce  and  industries  of  the  United  States.    This 


THE   PRESIDENT  AND   HIS   CABINET  191 

department  has  charge  of  the  census,  of  the  bureau  of 
fisheries,  the  bureau  of  standards,  of  steam-  Department 
boat    inspection,     lighthouses,    and    other  <>*  commerce 
agencies  for  the  protection  of  commerce. 

The  Secretary  of  Labor  collects  and  publishes  infor- 
mation upon  all  subjects  connected  with  labor,  espe- 
cially its  relation  to  capital,  the  hours  and  Department 
wages  of  labor,  and  the  means  of  advancing  °*  ^^^" 
the  interests  of  the  laboring  classes.  The  department 
serves  the  general  public,  as  well  as  labor  and  capital, 
by  endeavoring  to  preserve  industrial  peace,  and  to 
adjust  labor  disputes  through  conciliation.  In  this  de* 
partment  is  the  bureau  of  immigration,  which  supervises 
the  administration  of  our  immigration  laws.  There  is 
also  a  children's  bureau,  which  investigates  matters 
pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  children  and  child  life, 
such  as  the  employment  of  children  in  industry. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Which  method  of  electing  the  President  do  you  consider  best  ? 
Give  reasons. 

2.  How  many  members  in  the  electoral  college  at  present  ?  How- 
ls this  number  fixed  ?  What  number  of  electoral  votes  is 
necessary  to  a  choice  ? 

3.  How  many  electors  has  your  State  ?  Which  political  party 
generally  carries  your  State  in  presidential  elections  ? 

4.  What  qualifications  are  required  in  your  State  to  entitle  one 
to  vote  at  presidential  elections  ? 

5.  Who  were  the  candidates  at  the  last  presidential  election  ? 
How  were  they  nominated?  Who  were  the  candidates  for 
Vice-President  ? 

6.  What  electoral  vote  was  received  by  each  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal candidates  ?  What  was  the  popular  vote  for  each  ? 

7.  What  was  the  previous  public  service  of  our  President  before 
his  election  to  the  presidency  ?  Are  successful  governors  often 
nominated  for  the  presidency  ? 


102  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

8.  Name  the  Presidents  who  received  a  minority  of  the  popular 
vote. 

9.  Prepare  a  report  upon  the  presidential  elections  of  1800  and 
1824. 

10.  Prepare  a  report  upon  the  disputed  election  of  1876. 

11.  Explain  how  the  President  may  involve  the  country  in  war, 
notwithstanding  the  right  to  declare  war  is  vested  in  Con- 
gress. 

12.  Report  upon  the  President's  power  to  suppress  domestic  vio- 
lence, as  shown  by  President  Cleveland's  action  in  1894. 
(McClure's  Magazine  (1904),  xxiii,  pp.  227-240.) 

13.  Has  the  Senate  any  control  over  removals  ?  Why  should  the 
President  alone  exercise  the  power  of  removal  ? 

14.  Compare  the  President's  power  of  appointment  with  that  of 
your  State  governor ;  of  your  mayor. 

15.  Make  the  same  comparison  with  regard  to  the  President's 
power  of  removal. 

16.  May  an  official  of  the  United  States  at  the  same  time  hold 
office  under  a  State  or  territorial  government  ? 

17.  Prepare  a  report  upon  the  Spoils  System. 

18.  Prepare  a  report  upon  Civil  Service  Reform. 

J9.  May  the  President  sign  a  bill  after  Congress  adjourns  ? 

20.  What  would  be  the  advantage  of  giving  the  President  power 
to  veto  part  of  a  bill  ?  How  could  this  power  be  granted  ? 

21.  How  are  cabinet  officers  appointed  and  confirmed  ?  How  may 
they  be  removed  ? 

22.  Name  the  members  of  our  present  cabinet. 

23.  Name  several  of  our  greatest  Secretaries  of  State. 

24.  Describe  the  work  of  the  secret-service  bureau.  (Wilkie, 
John  E.,  in  History-Making,  pp.  21-28.) 

25.  Report  upon  the  work  of  the  bureau  of  the  mint.  (Leach, 
Frank  A.,  in  History-Making,  pp.  133-137.) 

26.  Describe  the  work  of  the  reclamation  service.  (Newell,  E.  H. 
in  History-Making,  pp.  188-190.) 

27.  Describe  the  work  of  the  weather  bureau.  (Moore,  W.  L.,  in 
History-Making,  pp.  149-154.) 

28.  In  what  ways  does  the  federal  government  promote  agri- 
culture ? 

29.  Prepare  a  report  upon  the  Congressional  Library.  (Putnam, 
Herbert,  in  History-Making,  pp.  138-148.) 

30.  Discuss  the  work  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission.  (Kaye, 
P.  L.,  Readings  in  Civil  Government,  pp.  232-242 ;  Reinscl^ 
P.  S.,  Readings,  pp.  683-702.) 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE   FEDERAL    COUBTS 


213.  The  Supreme  Court  Chamber.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  and  impressive  sights  at  Washington 
is  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  session. 
This  court  meets  amid  historic  surroundings ;  for  its 
chamber  in  the  Capitol  was  the  meeting-place  of  the 
United  State  Senate  during  the  first  fifty  years  of  our 
national  life.  Here  Thomas  JefPerson,  the  first  Presi- 
dent to  be  inaugurated  at  the  Capitol,  delivered  his 
address  and  took  the  oath  of  office.  Here  in  October, 
1803,  the  Senate  confirmed  the  treaty  with  Napoleon 
by  which  we  acquired  the  imperial  domain  known  as 
the  Louisiana  Purchase.  Here  the  Senate  met  when 
war  was  declared  against  Great  Britain  in  1812,  and 
against  Mexico  in  1846.  Here  on  December  2,  1823, 
the  celebrated  Monroe  Doctrine  was  first  proclaimed 
to  the  world  in  a  messagfe  from  President  Monroe. 
This  hall  was  also  a  silent  witness  of  the  memorable 
debate  between  Webster  of  Massachusetts  and  Hayne 
of  South  Carolina,  in  which  the  eloquent  advocate  of 
State  rights  was  pitted  against  the  great  apostle  of 
"  the  Union,  one  and  inseparable." 

214.  Sessions  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Since  1859 
this    old    Senate   chamber,   remodeled,    has 

Ceremony 

been  used  as  the  Supreme  Court  room.  Here  of  opening 

sessions  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  held  daily, 

from  the  second  Monday  in  October  until  late  in  the 


194  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

following  spring.  At  precisely  twelve  o'clock  noon  on 
the  days  that  court  is  in  session,  nine  venerable  jus- 
tices in  black  robes  enter  the  chamber,  and  the  court 
crier  announces:  ^'The  Honorable  the  Chief  Justice 
and  the  Associate  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States!"  Officials,  attorneys,  and  specta- 
tors respectfully  stand  until  the  court  is  seated,  when 
the  crier  calls :  "  Oyez,^  oyez,  oyez !  Ail  persons  hav- 
ing business  before  the  Honorable  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  are  admonished  to  draw  near  and 
give  their  attention,  for  the  Court  is  now  sitting.  God 
save  the  United  States  and  this  Honorable  Court ! " 

215.  How  the  Court  hears  and  decides  Cases. 

Only  attorneys  who  have  practiced  at  least  three  years 

in  the  courts  of  their  own  States  may  argfue 

Fresenta-  *^        P 

tion  of  ar-  a  case  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  In  presenting  an  argument,  counsel 
addresses  the  court  in  a  voice  seldom  raised  above  a 
conversational  tone ;  for  this  tribunal  is  not  moved  by 
oratory.  After  counsel  for  each  side  has  presented  his 
argument,  the  court  takes  the  case  under  considera- 
tion, and  announces  its  decision  at  a  later  day.  In 
addition  to  hearing  the  oral  arguments  of  counsel, 
each  justice  has  before  him  a  printed  copy  of  the 
briefs,^  and  the  entire  record  of  the  case. 

Saturday  of  each  week  is  conference  day,  on  which 
Conference  ^^  Open  sessions  of  the  court  are  held.  At 
^^  these  conferences,  the  cases  which  have  been 

1  Oyez  :  Old  French  for  "  Hear  ye." 

2  The  "brief"  is  the  argument  of  counsel,  supported  by  citation  of 
legal  decisions  and  authorities.  In  cases  carried  up  to  the  Supreme 
Court,  the  brief  is  printed,  and  a  copy  submitted  to  each  justice  for  his 
consideration. 


THE   FEDERAL   COURTS  195 

submitted  are  called  by  the  Chief  Justice,  and  dis- 
cussed fully  and  freely.  Each  justice  is  expected  to 
have  examined  the  record  and  briefs,  and  to  be  pre- 
pared to  state  his  individual  opinion.  After  the  case 
has  been  fully  discussed,  the  roll  is  called  by  the  Chief 
Justice,  and  a  vote  is  taken  on  affirming  or  reversing 
the  decision  of  the  lower  court. 

After  the  conference  is  over,  the  Chief  Justice  as- 
signs to  individual  justices  the  duty  of  preparing  the 
written  opinions.  Each  justice  to  whom  a  writing  tin 
case  has  been  assigned  writes  an  opinion  in  op^*°^ 
accordance  with  the  views  of  the  majority  of  the 
court,  supporting  it  by  arguments  and  citation  of 
authorities.  This  opinion  is  afterwards  read  and  dis- 
cussed in  conference,  and  if  approved  by  a  majority 
'of  the  justices  (at  least  five  of  the  nine  concurring), 
it  is  announced  as  the  decision  of  the  court.  These 
decisions  are  published  in  volumes  known  as  the 
United  States  Reports,  which  are  consulted  by  at- 
torneys and  judges  throughout  the  Union ;  for  they 
contain  the  opinions  of  highest  authority  upon  the 
meaning  and  interpretation  of  our  laws. 

No  other  court  in  the  world  has  so  much  power  as 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States :  for 

^  .  .  Power  ol  tits 

as  we  shall  see  later,  this  tribunal  may  set  supreme 
aside  even  the  acts  of  Congress,  as  well  as 
the  laws  of  any  State,  if  these  are  in  conflict  with  the 
national  constitution,  our  supreme  law. 

216.  The  Three  Grades  of  Federal  Courts.  The 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  is  the  highest 
court  in  the  land,  the  court  of  last  resort.  Below  it 
are  nine  circuit  courts  of  appeals^  and  seventy-eight 


106  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

district  courts.  The  district  courts  are  the  lowest 
courts  of  the  federal  judicial  system,  and  in  them 
most  cases  coming  before  the  federal  courts  are  begun 
and  first  tried.  The  decisions  of  the  district  courts  are 
subject  to  correction  by  the  next  higher  court,  the 
circuit  court  of  appeals.  As  a  rule,  the  decrees  of  this 
court  are  final;  and  only  the  most  important  cases 
may  be  carried  up  to  the  Supreme  Court. 

217.  Cases  Tried  in  the  Federal  Courts.  Ordi- 
narily the  national  courts  do  not  try  the  same  kind 
irine  classes  ^^  cascs  as  the  State  courts,  but  only  those 
of  cases  ^^  which  the  nature  of  the  controversy  makes 
it  desirable  to  have  the  final  decision  made  by  a  na- 
tional, rather  than  by  a  State,  tribunal.  For  example, 
suits  between  citizens  of  different  States,  cases  arising 
under  the  revenue,  patent,  and  copyright  laws,  and 
all  cases  involving  the  meaning  or  constitutionality 
of  a  law  of  Congress,  may  be  brought  before  the  na- 
tional courts  for  decision.  In  all,  there  are  nine  classes 
of  cases  which  the  national  courts  hear  and  decide; 
these  are  enumerated  in  the  federal  constitution  (Art. 
Ill,  Sec.  2). 

218.  Deciding  whether  Laws  are  Constitutional. 
Courts  of  justice  exist  primarily  to  protect  individual 
Unique  rights,  and  to  punish  those  who  break  the 
American  l^^^s.  In  our  couutry,  the  courts  exercise  an- 
conrts  other  power  which  gives  them  a  position  of 
great  importance.  If  an  act  passed  by  the  legislature 
is  involved  in  a  case  brought  before  it,  the  court  will 
decide  whether  the  act  is  in  accordance  with  the  con- 
stitution. In  other  words,  the  court  sits  in  judgment 
on  the  so-called  law,  and  decides  whether  it  is  in  fact 


THE  FEDERAL   COURTS  197 

a  law,  or  a  measure  which  is  void  and  of  no  effect 
because  in  conflict  with  the  constitution.  This  power 
makes  the  courts  the  guardians  and  defenders  of  the 
constitution,  our  supreme  law,  with  which  all  acts  of 
the  legislature  and  executive  must  be  in  accord. 

This  function  of  the  judiciary  was  clearly  stated 
by  Chief  Justice  Marshall  in  one  of  the  earliest  cases ^ 
brought  before  the  Supreme  Court :  "  It  is  owef 
emphatically  the  province  and  duty  of  the  ^Mshlu's 
judicial  department  to  say  what  the  law  is.  ovunon 
Those  who  apply  the  rule  to  particular  cases  must  of 
necessity  expound  and  interpret  that  rule.  If  two  laws 
conflict  with  each  other,  the  courts  must  decide  on  the 
operation  of  each. 

^^  So  if  a  law  be  in  opposition  to  the  Constitution ; 
if  both  the  law  and  the  Constitution  apply  to  a  par- 
ticular case,  so  that  the  court  must  either  decide  that 
case  conformably  to  the  law,  disregarding  the  Consti- 
tution, or  conformably  to  the  Constitution,  disregard- 
ing the  law,  the  court  must  determine  which  of  these 
conflicting  rules  governs  the  case.  This  is  of  the  very 
essence  of  judicial  duty. 

"  If,  then,  the  courts  are  to  regard  the  Constitution, 
and  the  Constitution  is  superior  to  any  ordinary  act  o£ 
the  legislature,  the  Constitution,  and  not  such  ordinary 
act,  must  govern  the  case  to  which  they  both  appiy." 

Each  year  many  State  laws,  and  even  provisions  of 
the  State  constitutions,  are  declared  void  by 
the   United   States  Supreme  Court  because  tntionai ' 
of  conflict  with  the  federal  constitution.    In     ®^®'*'®" 
this  way  the  States  are  prevented  from  encroaching 

^  Marbury  v.  Madison,  1  Cranch,  p.  137. 


198  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

upon  the  powers  of  the  national  government.  From 
time  to  time,  acts  of  Congress  are  set  aside  by  the 
Supreme  Court  for  the  same  reason,  thus  keeping  our 
national  legislature  and  executive  within  the  bounds 
prescribed  by  the  constitution.  Two  of  the  most 
famous  decisions  disallowing  acts  of  Congress  are  the 
Dred  Scott  Case,  decided  in  1857,  denying  the  power 
of  Congress  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories ;  and 
the  Income  Tax  Case  (1895),  in  which  the  federal 
tax  on  incomes  was  declared  unconstitutional. 

219.  Federal  Judges.  Judges  of  the  federal  courts 
are  appointed  by  the  President  with  the  approval  of 
Independent  ^^^  Senate.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
position  ^jjg^i;  ^j^g  judiciary  be  fearless  and  impartial  in 
all  of  its  decisions ;  and  hence  provisions  were  inserted 
in  the  constitution  designed  to  make  the  judges  in- 
dependent of  both  Congress  and  the  President.  Fed- 
eral judges  hold  office  for  life,  or  during  good  be- 
havior; they  cannot  be  removed  from  office  except 
through  the  process  of  impeachment;  and  their  com- 
pensation cannot  be  decreased  during  their  term  of 
office. 

The  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  paid  $14,500 
a  year  (the  Chief  Justice  receiving  an  additional 
oompensa-  $^^^)  ?  circuit  judges  receive  $7,000;  and 
*^*^  district  judges  $6,000.  Any  federal  judge 

who  has  served  at  least  ten  years  may  resign  on  at- 
taining the  age  of  seventy  years,  and  draw  full  salary 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

220.  Other  Judicial  Officers.  In  each  of  the  sev- 
enty-eight judicial  districts,  there  is  a  district  attorney, 
a  marshal,  and  a  clerk.  The  district  attorney  prose- 


THE   FEDERAL   COURTS  199 

cutes  offenders  against  the  laws  of  Congress,  and 
defends  cases  to  which  the  United  States  is  District 
a  party.  The  marshal,  like  the   sheriff,  en-  ^^®^; 
forces  the  decrees  of  the  court.  If  resisted,  ^lerk 
he  may  call  a  posse  of  citizens  to  his  aid,  or  he  may 
ask  for  federal  troops  if  necessary.  District  attorneys 
and  marshals  are  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
States  Attorney-General,  as  head  of  the  Department 
of  Justice. 

Throughout  the  country  at  suitable  points,  and 
mainly  in  the  principal  cities,  there  are  United  States 
commissioners,  who  are  federal  officials  cor- 

,.  ',       .        .  „    ,  .  United 

responding  to  the  justices  or  the  peace  in  our  states  com- 
State  governments.  Persons  accused  of  vio- 
lating federal  laws  are  brought  before  the  commis- 
sioners, who  decide  whether  they  shall  be  held  to 
await  the  action  of  the  federal  grand  jury.  The  com- 
missioners also  have  certain  powers  in  maritime  cases. 
221.  The  Court  of  Claims.  Suit  cannot  be  brought 
against  the  United  States  as  in  the  case  of  an  individ- 
ual ;  but  persons  having  claims  against  the  national 
government  may  present  them  to  the  Court  of  Claims. 
This  is  a  special  tribunal  consisting  of  five  judges, 
who  sit  at  Washington.  If  the  decision  of  this  court  is 
in  favor  of  the  claimant,  the  award  may  be  authorized 
by  Congress,  and  the  money  paid  from  the  federal 
treasury. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  territory  is  included  in  your  federal  judicial  district? 
Where  is  the  court  held?  Name  the  district  judge,  the  district 
attorney,  and  the  marshal.  For  what  term  and  by  whom  is 
each  appointed? 


200  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

2.  Name  the  justices  of  our  present  Supreme  Court.  Name  the 
men  who  have  held  the  position  of  chief  justice.  Who  are  the 
most  famous? 

3.  Compare  the  method  of  appointment  and  the  term  of  federal 
judges  with  that  of  the  judges  of  your  State  supreme  court. 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  life  tenure  for  judges?  (Kaye, 
P.  L.,  Readings  m  Civil  Government,  pp.  247-250.) 

5.  Describe  the  process  by  which  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  renders  a  decision.  By  whom  is  the  decision  written,  by 
whom  reported,  and  where  published?  (Reinsch,  P.  S.,  Mead' 
ings,  pp.  716-717.) 


CHAPTER  XVII 


COMMERCE   AND    MONEY 


222.  Commercial  Powers  of  Congress.  Our  na- 
tional constitution  vests  in  Congress  the  power  "  to 
resfulate  commerce  with  foreira  nations  and  „ 

1  in  1        •  1       1        T        Foreign  and 

among  the  several  fetates,  and  with  the  in-  interstate 
dian  tribes."  ^  Under  this  provision,  each 
State  retains  control  of  the  commerce  wholly  within 
its  boundaries.  But  commerce  which  passes  beyond 
State  boundaries  into  another  State,  called  interstate 
commerce,  is  controlled  by  the  national  government; 
and  the  same  is  true  of  foreign  commerce,  or  that 
carried  on  with  other  countries. 

The  term  ''  commerce  "  as  used  in  the  constitution 
has  been  broadly  construed  by  the  Supreme  Court. 
It  includes  traffic,  or  the  purchase  and  sale  Definition  of 
of  goods,  and  also  navigation  and  inter-  ''o"^"^®"® 
course  whether  by  land  or  water,  together  with  all 
the  means  or  agencies  by  which  such  intercourse  is 
carried  on.  Transportation  of  persons,  as  well  as 
freight,  is  included  within  its  terms. 

223.  Subject-Matter  of  this  Chapter.  The  control 
of  foreign  commerce  by  Congress  has  been  exercised 
chiefly  with  reference  to  three  subjects,  —  navigation, 
the  tariff,  and  immigration.  Besides  these  three 
topics,  we  shall  study  in  this  chapter  three  of  the 

1  Constitution,  Art.  I,  Sec.  8,  Par.  3. 


202  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

most  important  agencies  by  which  commerce  is  carried 
on,  namely,  railroads,  money,  and  the  post-office. 

224.  Navigation.  Navigation  between  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries,  as  well  as  between  the 
„       ,      States  of  the  Union,  is  subiect  to  the  con- 

Hffeans  of  .        ^ 

protecting  trol  of  Congrcss.  Accordingly,  Congress  has 
established  rules  of  navigation,  including  the 
law  of  the  road  at  sea,  the  maritime  system  of  lights 
and  signals,  port  and  quarantine  regulations.^  Coast 
surveys  are  made,  and  dangerous  reefs  charted; 
lighthouses  and  life-saving  stations  are  maintained 
for  the  protection  of  commerce.  You  have  no  doubt 
read  of  the  heroic  work  of  the  life-saving  crews 
which  are  ready  at  a  moment's  notice  to  rescue  the 
passengers  of  ships  in  distress. 

225.  River  and  Harbor  Improvements.  The  im- 
provement of  rivers  and  harbors  is  another  important 
means  of  aiding  navigation,  and  for  this  purpose  the 
national  government  spends  many  millions  each  year. 
Each  member  of  Congress  naturally  desires  to  secure 
the  improvement  of  the  navigable  waterways  in  his  dis- 
trict; and  a  great  deal  of  money  has  been  wasted  on 
the  improvement  of  streams  of  slight  importance  to  the 
commerce  of  the  country. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  extensive  improve- 
ments have  been  undertaken  which  have  greatly 
Aids  to  aided  commerce.  Examples  of  these  are  the 
commerce  breakwaters  and  piers  at  Chicago,  Cleveland, 
Buffalo,  and  Milwaukee;  the  jetty  system  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  other  gulf  ports ;  and 

^  For  example,  numerous  ports  along  our  seacoast  are  designated 
as  ports  of  entry  for  the  collection  of  customs  ;  and  at  these  ports  all 
vessels  are  required  to  enter  and  clear. 


(By  cuurteay  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission) 


OPENING  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

S.S.  Ancon  in  the  AVest  Chamber,  Gatun  middle  locks,  Aujrust  15, 1914. 


(,By  courtesy  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission} 
OPENING  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 
S.S.  Ancon  on  Gatun  Lake,  August  15, 1914. 


A  LOCK  IN  THE  SAULT  STE.   MARIE  SHIP  CANAL 

The  canal  connects  Lake  Superior  with  St.  Mary's  River  and  Lake  Huron.  It  is  about  three 
miles  in  length  and  has  two  locks.  The  depth  of  water  is  sufficient  to  allow  the  passage  of 
vessels  of  about  12,000  tons    displacement. 


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Courtesy,  Commissioner  of  Bridges. 
A  PART  OF  THE  QUEENSBORO  BRIDGE,   NEW  YORK 

This  bridge  connects  Manhattan  Borough  and  Queen's  Borough. 
The  total  cost  of  real  estate  and  construction  was  $17,000,000.  The  bridge  is  of  the  cantilever 
type,  with  three  spans,  of  which  the  longest  is  1182  feet.  The  total  length  of  the  bridge, 
including  approaches,  is  7449  feet.  The  bridge  carries  roadways,  trolley  tracks,  and  elevated 
railway  tracks.  Its  clear  height  above  high  water  is  135  feet.  The  flag  poles  on  the  towers 
are  406  feet  above  the  river. 


COMMERCE  AND   MONEY  20S 

the  levees  or  artificial  dikes  along  the  Mississippi. 
Canals  have  been  constructed  to  connect  interstate 
waters,  and  to  permit  navigation  around  waterfalls. 
The  largest  of  these  is  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Ship 
Canal,  which  connects  the  waters  of  Lake  Superior 
with  those  of  St.  Mary's  River  and  Lake  Huron, 
around  the  falls  in  the  river. 

All  river  and  harbor  improvements  are  carried  on 
under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  aided 
by  engineers  of  the  United  States  Army. 

226.  The  Panama  Canal.  The  Panama  Canal  is 
the  greatest  project  yet  undertaken  by  the  United 
States  for  the  promotion  of  commerce.  The  canal  is 
about  fifty  miles  in  length,  from  deep  water  in  the 
Caribbean  Sea  to  deep  water  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
This  great  waterway  shortens  the  distance  between 
the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  the  United  States,, 
and  in  this  way  aids  commerce.  It  also  affords  better 
naval  protection  by  permitting  the  quick  passage  of 
our  warships  from  coast  to  coast.  Our  work  on  the 
Panama  Canal  was  begun  in  May,  1904 ;  the  Canal 
was  opened  to  commerce  in  August,  1914. 

227.  Tariff  Duties.  Tariff  duties  constitute  one  of 
the  most  important  means  by  which  Congress  regu- 
lates our  forelsrn  commerce.  Tariff  or  cus- 

.  1       •     1  11  Revenue 

toms  duties  are  taxes  levied  on  goods  brought  andprotect- 
into  the  United  States  from  abroad.  These 
duties  may  be  levied  solely  to  secure  revenue  for  the 
government,  in  which  case  they  are  called  revenue 
tariffs.  More  often  they  are  designed  to  protect  do- 
mestic industries  from  foreign  competition ;  such  a 


«04  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

system  o£  duties  is  called  a  protective  tariff.  For  ex- 
ample, if  a  suit  of  clothes  made  in  London  must  pay 
a  duty  of  fifty  per  cent  of  its  value  on  being  imported 
into  the  United  States,  the  importer  adds  the  amount 
of  the  duty  to  the  price  of  the  garments.  So  the  for- 
eign manufacturer  is  placed  at  a  disadvantage  in  his 
effort  to  compete  with  the  American  manufacturer  in 
our  markets ;  and  the  American  manufacturer  is  pro- 
tected to  the  extent  of  the  duty  levied. 

228.  The  Policy  of  Protection.  Throughout  a  great 
part  of  our  history,  especially  since  the  Civil  War,  it 
has  been  the  policy  of  the  United  States  to  levy  high 
protective  tariffs.  Many  persons  believe  that  our  indus- 
tries are  now  so  well  established  that  they  no  longer 
need  the  protection  afforded  by  a  high  rate  of  du- 
ties; and  that  the  great  body  of  consumers  would  be 
benefited  by  lowering  the  rates.  They  argue  that  the 
American  manufacturer  can  produce  goods  as  cheaply 
as  his  foreign  competitor  ;  and  that  our  manufacturers 
—  in  many  cases  immense  corporations  —  are  reaping 
the  benefit  of  the  tariff  duties,  since  they  can  add  the 
amount  of  the  duty  to  the  price  of  the  product. 

In  many  campaigns  this  question  of  a  protective 

tariff  has  been  an  issue  between  the  political  parties, 

as  it  was  durins^  the  last  presidential  cam- 
Attitude  of         .  ^         p    -,     ' 
political       paign.  A  low  rate  01   duties,  or  a  revenue 

tariff,  has   generally  been   favored    by  the 

Democratic  party.  The  Republican  party  has  been 

the  champion  of  the  protective  tariff,  although  some 

Republicans  believe  that  on  many  commodities,  high 

rates  of  duty  are  no  longer  necessary. 

229.  The  Control  of  Immigration.   Commerce  in  its 


COMMERCE  AND  MONEY  205 

broadest  sense  includes  the  transportation  of  persons 
as  well  as  commodities ;  hence  under  its  commercial 
power,  Congress  regulates  immigration  to  the  United 
States.  It  has  always  been  the  policy  of  this  coun- 
try to  welcome  to  our  shores  the  honest  men  and 
women  of  other  lands  who  wish  to  come  here ;  and 
our  country's  wonderful  development  would  have  been 
impossible  without  the  brain  and  muscle  of  the  mil- 
lions of  immigrants  who  have  turned  to  America  as 
to  the  land  of  opportunity. 

At  times  this  hospitality  has  been  abused;  Eu- 
ropean governments  have  been  known  to  use  the 
United  States  as  a  dumping-ground  for  con-  classes 
victs,  paupers,  anarchists,  and  other  unde-  ®"i^^®^ 
sirable  citizens.  Hence  in  1882  Congress  passed  laws 
excluding  from  this  country  the  pauper,  criminal,  and 
insane  classes  of  aliens,  also  anarchists,  persons  suffer- 
ing from  contagious  disease,  and  Chinese  laborers.^ 
These  restrictions  are  little  more  than  sanitary  meas- 
ures necessary  to  protect  this  country  from  the  immi- 
gration of  the  diseased  and  criminal  classes  ;  or,  in  the 
case  of  the  Chinese,  from  a  people  of  a  different  race 
and  standard  of  living.^ 

230.  General  Characteristics  of  Immigration.  Cer- 
tain general  characteristics  of  our  immigration  are 
especially  important.  Foremost  among  these  increase  la 
is  the  great  increase  in  the  number  of  immi-  ^^^^^^^ 
grants.  Since  1820  there  has  been  a  steady  increase, 
until  prior  to  the  World  War,  nearly  a  million  immi- 
grants entered  our  country  each  year. 

1  Inspection  by  United  States  officials  is  provided  for  both  at  the 
point  of  departure  and  at  the  port  of  entry  in  this  country. 

2  Both  Japanese  and  Chinese  laborers  are  now  excluded. 


806  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

Even  more  important  than  this  large  increase  in 
numbers  is  the  marked  change  in  the  source  of  our 
Change  in  immigration.  Formerly  the  great  majority  of 
sonrce  immigrants  came  from  countries  allied  to  us 
in  race  or  language  —  from  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
and  the  Scandinavian  countries.  Only  a  small  propor- 
tion came  from  the  peoples  of  southern  and  eastern 
Europe  who  are  allied  to  us  in  neither  language 
nor  race.  But  since  1880,  the  immigration  from 
southeastern  Europe  has  rapidly  increased,  while  that 
from  northern  Europe  has  relatively  declined.  At  pre- 
sent northwestern  Europe  sends  only  about  eighteen 
per  cent  of  our  total  immigration,  while  southeastern 
Europe  sends  nearly  seventy-six  per  cent,  most  of 
which  comes  from  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  and  Russia. 

With  this  change  in  the  sources  of  our  immigra- 
tion, there  has  been  a  corresponding  change  in  the 
Change  in  character  of  the  immigrants  themselves.  The 
character  immigrants  from  northern  Europe  were  bet- 
ter educated,  more  familiar  with  representative  gov- 
ernment, and  in  many  cases  were  skilled  artisans  and 
mechanics.  In  contrast  with  them,  a  large  proportion 
of  the  immigrants  from  southeastern  Europe  are  illit- 
erate, that  is,  unable  to  read  and  write  their  own  lan- 
guage ;  and  nearly  all  are  unskilled  workers. 

The  demand  for  the  exclusion  of  illiterate  immi- 
grants led  Congress  in  1915  to  pass  a  bill  debarring 
aliens  who  could  not  read,  but  the  measure  was  ve- 
toed by  President  Wilson.  Finally,  enough  votes  were 
secured  in  Congress  to  pass  this  measure  over  the 
veto,  so  that  illiterate  immigrants  are  now  excluded. 

Another  serious  problem  arises  from  the  tendency 


COMMERCE   AND  MONEY  207 

of  immigrants  to  concentrate  in  large  cities.  Of  our 
total  population,  about  14  per  cent  is  foreign-  concentra- 
born ;  while  in  cities  of  over  25,000  people,  tio^i^^itiea 
26  per  cent  of  the  population  is  foreign-born.  Indeed, 
in  six  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States,  the 
number  of  foreign-born  males  of  voting  age  is  greater 
than  the  number  of  native-born.  It  is  much  more 
difficult  to  assimilate  and  educate  this  mass  of  foreign 
population  when  concentrated  in  our  large  cities,  than 
would  be  the  case  if  the  immigrants  were  scattered 
over  a  wider  area. 

231.  Railway  Transportation.  The  period  follow- 
ing the  Civil  War  was  marked  by  a  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  railway  industry.    Many  new 
lines  were  built,  and  an  era  01  excessive  com-  way  man- 
petition  followed,   which   proved   injurious 
both  to  the  roads  and  to  the  communities  which  they 
served.    Between  two  points  with  a  single  line  of 
railroad,  rates  were  often  exorbitant;  whereas  if  com- 
peting lines  connected  two  cities,  the  rates  were  some- 
times below  cost  —  the  railways  compensating  them- 
selves by  heavy  charges  between  points  where  there 
was  no  competition.  Not  only  were  there  discrimina- 
tions as  between  localities,  but  lower  rates  were  often 
granted  to  favored  shippers,  thus  making  possible  the 
creation  of  monopolies  in  certain  industries. 

As  a  result  of  these  conditions,  the  shippers  and 
the  public  demanded  that  government  take  steps  to 
regulate  the  railway  traffic.  Relief  was  first  gt^te  eontiBi 
sought  from  the  State  governments,  many  of  *"®"®o*i^e 
which  established  railway  commissions,  with  power  to 
fix  maximum  rates.  But  State  regulations  applied  only 


208  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

to  the  business  wholly  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
individual  State,  whereas  two  thirds  of  the  revenues 
of  the  railroads  were  derived  from  interstate  traffic, 
that  is,  the  traffic  between  different  States.  Hence 
it  became  necessary  for  the  federal  government  to 
regulate  interstate  transportation. 

232.  Interstate  Commerce  Act.  Accordingly,  in 
1887,  Congress  passed  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act. 
This  act  prohibits  discriminating  charges  in  favor  of 
individuals  or  localities;  requires  the  railroads  to  pub- 
lish their  rates  for  carrying  passengers  and  freight; 
and  forbids  changes  in  these  published  rates  except 
with  the  approval  of  the  Commission. 

To  enforce  the  provisions  of  this  act,  the  Presi- 
dent appoints  an  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  of 
nine  members.    This  commission  has  power 

Interstate  .  •  p       -i 

Commerce    to  require  reports  as  to  the  operation  01  rail- 

Oommission  i       .      i  i    •     , 

roads,  to  near  compJamts,  summon  witnesses, 
make  investigations,  and  under  the  Hepburn  Act  of 
1906,  to  fix  maximum  rates.  The  commission  may  for- 
bid railroads  to  continue  actions  which  it  deems  illegal, 
and  may  establish  maximum  rates  by  which  the  roads 
are  bound ;  but  its  decisions  are  not  final,  being  sub- 
ject to  review  by  the  courts. 

233.  Sherman  Anti-Trust  Act.  One  of  the  most 
important  regulations  of  interstate  commerce  is  the 
federal  Anti-Trust  Law  of  1890.  This  act  declares 
illegal  all  trusts  or  combinations  which  aim  to  secure 
a  monopoly,  as  well  as  any  agreement  in  restraint  of  in- 
terstate or  foreign  trade.  Persons  who  violate  the  law 
are  subject  to  punishment  by  fine  or  imprisonment 
or  both,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court.  A  supplement- 


COMMERCE   AND   MONEY  209 

ary  act  passed  in  1914,  establishes  a  Federal  Trade 
Commission  of  five  members,  appointed  by  the  Pres- 
ident. This  commission  supervises  the  activities  of 
large  corporations,  so  as  to  prevent  unfair  competi- 
tion. The  Clayton  Anti-Trust  Law  (1914)  seeks  to 
check  monopoly  by  specifying  the  particular  acts 
which  are  in  restraint  of  trade,  and  therefore  illegal. 

234.  Money.  One  of  the  most  important  aids  to 
commerce  is  money,  or  the  circulating  medium  pro* 
vided  by  the  national  government.  Money  Kinds  and 
is  of  two  kinds,  coins  and  paper  money.  °^a^«^iai« 
Our  more  valuable  coins  are  made  of  gold  and  silver, 
because  these  metals  possess  high  value  in  small 
quantities.  Then,  too,  they  are  hard  and  durable  — 
qualities  which  are  increased  by  adding  another 
metal  as  an  alloy.  The  nickel  and  the  cent,  or  minor 
coins,  are  made  from  the  less  valuable  metals. 

Money  is  "  legal  tender  "  if  the  law  says  it  must 
be  accepted  in  payment  of  debts.  The  gold  L^gai 
coins  and  the  silver  dollar  are  legal  tender  *®"^" 
to  an   unlimited  amount,  the  minor  coins   only  for 
smaller  sums.^ 

235.  The  Process  of  making  Coins.  The  different 
coins  in  use  in  the  United  States  are  coined  at  the 
mints  operated  by  the  government  at  Phila-  „ 

,    ^  .  Preparing 

delphia,  San   Francisco,   Denver,  and  New  the  coin 
Orleans.  The  gold  and  silver  is  first  refined 
so  as  to  be  absolutely  pure,  and   then  mixed  with 
alloy  to  give  the  proper  hardness.^  This  mixture  is 

*  The  half-dollar,  the  quarter,  and  the  dime  are  legal  tender  to  the 
amount  of  ten  dollars  ;  the  nickel  and  the  cent  to  twenty-five  cents. 

^  The  proportion  is  nine  parts  of  the  precious  metals  to  one  part  of 
alloy. 


210  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

molded  into  bars  or  ingots,  which  are  rolled  until 
they  are  strips  several  feet  long,  and  of  the  required 
thickness  for  the  several  coins.  These  strips  are  fed 
into  cutting  machines,  which  cut  out  the  disks  in 
sizes  suitable  for  the  different  coins. 

The  disks  are  then  placed  in  the  milling  machine 
which  raises  the  edges  so  as  to  prevent  wear  upon 
Miuing,  t^6  surface  of  the  coin.  Next  they  are 
aMM^t-  placed  in  the  coining  machines,  in  which  dies 
^s  from  above  and  below  are  pressed  simultan- 

eously against  the  disks  with  tremendous  force.  In 
the  counting  room  the  more  valuable  coins  are 
counted  by  weight,  the  minor  ones  by  being  placed 
in  grooves  which  hold  only  a  certain  number  of 
coins. 

236.  Paper  Money  —  The  Greenbacks.  Our  paper 
money  is  of  four  kinds:  (1)  United  States  notes, 
called  greenbacks;  (2)  gold  and  silver  certificates; 
(3)  national  bank  notes;  (4)  federal  reserve  notes. 

United  States  notes  or  greenbacks  are  issued  by 
the  national  government,  which  promises  to  pay  to 
Govern-  ^he  bearer  the  amount  named  on  the  face  of 
promissory  ^^^  note.  Thesc  were  first  issued  during  the 
Botes  Civil  War  when  our  government  was  in  great 

need  of  money,  and  were  made  legal  tender  in  pay- 
ment of  debts.  Since  these  notes  have  no  intrinsic 
value,  they  circulated  at  a  discount  during  the  war ; 
at  one  time  (July,  1864)  they  were  worth  only  thirty- 
nine  cents  on  the  dollar.  The  close  of  the  war  restored 
our  nation's  credit,  and  the  greenbacks  now  circu- 
late as  freely  as  any  other  form  of  money.  There  are 
about  $346,000,000  worth  of  greenbacks  in  circula- 


COMMERCE   AND  MONEY  211 

tion,  which  will  be  redeemed  in  gold  coin  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury.^ 

237.  Gold  and  Silver  Certificates.     Since   silver 
dollars  are   less    convenient   to  handle   than  paper 
money,  the  government  issues  silver  certifi- 
cates in  denominations  o£  one,  two,  five,  and  metallic 
ten  dollars.  These  certify  that  the  number  of  °^°"*^ 
silver  dollars  named  on  the  face  of  the  note  have 
been  deposited  in  the  vaults  of  the  treasury,  payable 
to  the  bearer  on  demand.  That  the  silver  certificates 
are  popular  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  many  millions 
of  silver  dollars  are  piled  up  in  sacks  at  the  treasury, 
for  which  silver  certificates  have  been  issued.    Gold 
certificates  are  issued  on  the  same  plan,  in  denomina- 
tions from  $10  to  $10,000. 

238.  National  Bank  Notes.  National  Bank  notes 
resemble  other  forms  of  paper  money  in  size  and  ap- 
pearance, but  they  are  issued  by  the  national  banks 
chartered  by  the  federal  government.  The  notes  are 
printed  by  the  government,  and  sent  to  the  banks  as 
requested;  but  the  banks  must  first  deposit  United 
States  bonds  with  the  Treasury  Department,  equal  in 
value  to  the  amount  of  bank  notes  issued.  Hence  na- 
tional bank  notes  are  readily  accepted,  for  even  if  the 
bank  should  fail,  its  notes  would  be  redeemed  by  the 
sale  of  the  bonds. 

Federal  reserve  notes  are  issued  to  banks  belonging 
to  the  federal  reserve  system,  in  return  for  collateral 
deposited  by  them. 

239.  Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing.  All  paper 
money  is  designed,  engraved,  and  printed  at  the  Bu- 
reau of  Engraving  and  Printing  at  Washington.  The 


212  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

peculiar  silk-fibered  paper  used  is  made  at  Dalton, 
Massachusetts,  the  process  of  manufacture  being  a 
closely  guarded  trade  secret.  This  paper  is  counted 
into  bundles  of  one  thousand  sheets  of  the  exact  size 
for  printing  four  notes  each,  and  is  then  sent  to 
Washington.  Here,  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
each  note  passes  through  the  hands  of  about  thirty 
different  employees;  and  an  elaborate  system  of  checks 
and  countings  makes  theft  almost  impossible. 

240.  The  Postal  Service.  The  postal  service  main- 
tained by  the  national  government  is  an  invaluable 
aid  to  the  commerce  of  the  country.  The  letter  carrier 
in  his  gray-blue  uniform  is  a  familiar  sight  in  every 
city  and  village  of  the  land ;  and  if  you  go  out  into 
the  country,  you  may  meet  the  rural  carrier  driving 
along  his  route,  delivering  mail  to  the  farmers  so  that 
they  need  not  go  several  miles  to  the  post-of&ce. 

You  all  know  how  convenient  it  is  to  drop  a  letter 
into  the  mail  box,  and  have  it  go  to  any  part  of  the 
Lowrates  United  States  for  a  two  cent  stamp.  Five 
o«  postage  cents  will  carry  your  letter  as  fast  as  modern 
steam  cars  and  steamships  can  speed  anywhere  in  the 
civilized  world ;  for  all  the  nations  are  united  in  a 
Universal  Postal  Union  for  the  delivery  of  mail.  In 
the  United  States  the  rates  for  carrying  the  mail  are 
so  low  that  there  is  often  a  deficit  of  from  ten  to 
fifteen  million  dollars  in  the  postal  budget,  the  loss 
being  chiefly  on  newspapers  and  periodicals,  called 
second-class  matter. 

Our  postal  service  is  to-day  the  largest  business 
machine  in  the  world.  In  Washington's  time  there 
were  seventy-five  post-offices  and  1800  miles  of  post- 


COMMEKCE  AND  MONEY  213 

routes.  To-day  there  are  about  55,000  post-offices,  and 
480,000  miles  of  post-routes ;  several  billion  pieces  of 
mail  are  handled  each  year  at  a  cost  of  $325,000,000. 
By  this  tremendous  expansion,  the  postal  service 
has  kept  pace  with  the  wonderful  growth  of  our 
country. 

241.  Postmasters  and  Employees.  We  have  seen 
that  the  Postmaster-General  has  the  management  and 
control  of  the  postal  service,  subject  of  course  to  the 
direction  of  the  President  as  Chief  Executive.  Post- 
offices  are  divided  into  four  classes,  according  to  the 
amount  of  business  transacted.  Postmasters  of  the 
the  first  three  classes  are  appointed  by  the  President 
with  the  consent  of  the  Senate ;  while  the  fourth-class 
postmasters  have  recently  been  placed  under  the  rules 
of  the  Civil  Service.  Most  of  the  employees,  including 
postal  clerks,  railway  mail  clerks,  and  letter  carriers, 
are  appointed  on  the  basis  of  merit,  as  evidenced  by 
civil  service  examinations.  Numerous  inspectors  in 
the  employ  of  the  department  inspect  the  work  of 
the  employees  in  order  to  insure  honest  and  efficient 
service. 

242.  Money  Orders  and  Registry  Departments. 
You  are  no  doubt  familiar  with  the  system  whereby 
money  may  be  sent  through  the  mail  by  money 
means  of  money  orders.  These  may  be  pur-  "'^®" 
chased  at  any  post-office  for  a  small  fee ;  and  it  is 
very  foolish  to  inclose  coin  or  paper  bills  in  a  letter, 
when  government  has  provided  such  a  cheap  and  safe 
method  of  transmitting  money. 

Valuable  letters  and  packages  may  be  registered 
upon  payment  of  eight  cents  in  addition  to  the  regu- 


214  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

lar  postage,  thus  insuring  a  careful  record  of  the 
parcel  and  a  receipt  for  its  delivery.  You 

and  special  may  securc  immediate  delivery  of  your  letter 
by  paying  a  special  delivery  fee  of  ten  cents, 

in  addition  to  the  regular  postage. 

243.  Dead  Letter  OflBlce.  If  the  name  and  address 
on  the  envelope  cannot  be  deciphered,  or  if  the 
person  to  whom  it  is  addressed  cannot  be  found,  the 
letter  v^^ill  be  returned  to  the  sender,  provided  his 
name  and  address  are  placed  on  the  upper  left  hand 
corner  of  the  envelope.  Otherwise  it  is  sent  to  the 
Dead  Letter  Office,  where  it  is  opened  and  returned 
to  the  sender,  if  his  name  and  address  are  found 
within. 

244.  Recent  Developments  of  the  Postal  Services 
Within  recent  years  the  postal  service  has  undertake* 
three  new  services  of  great  importance.  (1)  A  system 
of  rural  free  delivery  has  been  provided,  making  it 
possible  for  the  people  in  the  country  to  share  in  the 
benefits  of  our  free  delivery  system.  (2)  In  1910  Con- 
gress authorized  a  system  of  postal  savings  banks, 
which  pay  two  per  cent  interest  on  deposits.  This  plan 
encourages  saving  by  the  investor  of  small  means;  for 
he  can  deposit  his  money  in  the  government's  postal 
bank,  and  know  that  his  savings  are  absolutely  secure. 
(3)  Finally,  the  latest  service  undertaken  by  the  post- 
office  is  the  carrying  of  packages  weighing  not  over 
fifty  pounds  by  means  of  a  parcel  post,  such  as  is 
found  in  nearly  all  European  countries. 


COMMERCE   AND  MONEY  «15 


QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  was  the  amount  of  our  foreign  commerce  last  year  ? 
Did  the  exports  exceed  the  imports  ? 

2.  Erom  which  five  countries  do  we  buy  the  most  goods  ?  Which 
five  are  our  best  customers  ? 

3.  Prepare  a  report  on  the  Panama  Canal.  Give  an  account  of 
the  acquisition  of  the  Canal  Zone  and  of  the  work  accom- 
plished ;  state  how  the  canal  will  benefit  commerce. 

4.  What  amount  did  the  federal  government  appropriate  last 
year  for  river  and  harbor  improvements?  What  part  of 
this  was  for  your  State  ?  Do  inland  cities  receive  any  benefit 
from  these  improvements  ? 

5.  Prepare  a  report  upon  the  Erie  Canal,  paying  especial  at- 
tention to  its  effects  on  our  commerce. 

6.  Examine  the  map  of  the  United  States,  and  suggest  canals 
which  would  aid  commerce. 

7.  Name  the  great  inland  centers  of  commerce  in  the  United 
States.  Explain  how  the  commerce  and  industry  of  each  has 
been  aided :  (a)  by  canals  ;  (b)  by  rivers ,  (c)  by  railroads. 

8.  Has  the  commerce  of  your  city  been  aided  by  any  of  these 
means  of  transportation  ? 

9.  Why  do  business  men  object  to  frequent  changes  in  tariff 
rates  ? 

10.  Give  arguments  for  and  against  an  educational  test  for  im- 
migrants, such  as  the  ability  to  read  and  write  their  own 
language. 

11.  Is  there  a  railway  commission  in  your  State  ?  How  do  its 
powers  compare  with  those  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission ? 

12.  Name  five  great  railway  systems  engaged  in  interstate  com- 
merce. How  are  they  controlled  by  the  federal  government  ^ 

13.  May  Congress  forbid  the  transportation  across  State  lines  of 
goods  manufactured  by  child  labor  ? 

14.  In  what  ways  has  the  federal  government  aided  the  construc- 
tion of  railroads  ? 

15.  Should  Congress  purchase  all  telegraph  lines  and  make  a  gov 
ernment  monopoly  of  the  telegraph  business  ? 

16.  In  what  denominations  are  the  different  coins  and  paper 
money  issued  by  the  government  ? 

17.  Bring  to  class  each  of  the  various  forms  of  currenQy  for 
-careful  examination. 


216  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

18.  How  does  the  amount  of  gold  in  circulation  compare  with  the 

amount  of  silver  (or  silver  certificates)  ? 
19-  Where  is  gold  produced  in  large  quantities  ''  Where  are  the 

largest  silver-mines  ?  What  was  the  total  production  of  each 

metal  last  year  ? 

20.  What  is  the  essential  difference  between  United  States  notes 
or  "  greenbacks,"  and  other  forms  of  paper  money  ? 

21.  Explain  the  causes  of  the  fluctuations  in  value  of  United 
States  notes  during  the  period  1862-1879. 

22.  From  your  examination  of  a  United  States  note,  answer  tho 
following  •,  (a)  In  what  year  did  Congress  authorize  its  issue? 
(b)  Is  it  a  legal  tender?  (c)  Penalty  for  counterfeiting  it  ? 
{d)  What  did  the  words  "  will  pay  the  bearer  five  dollars  " 
mean  when  the  note  was  issued  ?  (e)  What  do  these  words 
mean  now  ^ 

23.  Name  the  national  banks  in  your  city.  What  is  the  capita) 
of  each?  Why  does  the  public  ordinarily  have  entire  confi 
dence  in  their  management  ? 

24.  What  forms  of  credit  are  largely  employed  as  a  substitute 
for  money  ? 


CHAPTER  XVm      , 

TERRITORIES   AND   PUBLIC    LANDS 

245.  The  United  States  in  1789.  At  the  time  our 
national  constitution  was  adopted  (1789),  the  United 
States  was  only  about  one  fourth  as  large  as 

it  is  to-day.  Its  boundaries  were  the  Great  with  pro- 
Lakes  and  Canada  on  the  north,  the  Atlantic  **^  "*^ 
on  the  east,  the  Floridas  on  the  south,  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  on  the  west.  Since  that  time  our  bound- 
aries have  been  repeatedly  extended,  until  to-day  we 
possess  an  immense  territory  reaching  from  coast  to 
coast,  besides  Alaska,  the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico, 
Hawaii,  and  several  smaller  islands  in  the  Pacific.  In 
1789  the  area  of  our  country  was  892,135  square 
miles;  to-day  the  United  States  with  all  outlying 
possessions  has  an  area  of  3,743,306  square  miles. 

246.  Expansion  of  the  National  Area.  Briefly,  the 
story  of  this  expansion  is  as  follows :  — 

(1)  In  1803  the  vast  territory  known  as  Louisiana 
was  purchased  from  France  for  $15,000,000.  Louisiana 
This    territory  included  all  of  the   western  ^^^^^^* 
Mississippi  valley  and  the  Isle  of  Orleans,  an  imperial 
area  of  nearly  a  million  square  miles. 

(2)  The  second  annexation  was  that  of  Oregon,  the 
territory  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  between  par- 
allels forty-two  and  forty-nine  desfrees  north 

Otocoii 

latitude.  Title  to  this  region  was  by  discov- 
ery and  exploration,  based  partly  upon  the  voyage  of 


218  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

Captain  Gray  in  1792,  but  chiefly  upon  the  overland 
expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark  in  1805.  Our  title  to 
Oregon  was  for  a  time  contested  by  Great  Britain, 
Spain,  and  Russia.  Great  Britain  did  not  relinquish 
her  claim  until  1846,  when  the  treaty  was  signed 
establishing  the  present  northwestern  boundary  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada. 

(3)  In  1819  Florida  was  purchased  from  Spain  for 

$5,000,000,  thereby  giving  the  United  States 
a  natural  boundary  on  the  southeast. 

(4)  In  1845  the  independent  State  of  Texas  was 

admitted  to  the  Union  by  a  ioint  resolution 
of  Congress. 

(5)  In  1848,  by  the  treaty  which  closed  the  Mexican 
First  Mexi-  War,  wc  acquired  the  immense  area  south  of 
can  cession  Qrcgou  and  west  of  Texas,  including  Cali- 
fornia and  what  was  then  called  New  Mexico. 

(6)  In  1853  the  second  Mexican  annexation,  known 
Gadsden  ^s  the  Gadsdcn  Purchase,  added  a  narrow 
pnrchase  g|.j.jp  j^  ^j^^  southern  parts  of  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico,  at  a  cost  of  $10,000,000. 

(7j  In  1867  the  vast  territory  of  Alaska,  compris- 
ing nearly  620,000  square  miles,  was  pur- 
chased from  Russia  for  $7,200,000. 

(8)  The  Hawaiian  Islands,  over  which  a  protectorship 

had  virtually  existed  since  1851,  were  annexed 
by  a  joint  resolution  of  Congress  in  1898. 

(9)  By  the  treaty  which  closed  the  Spanish-Ameri- 

can War  (December,  1898),  Spain  ceded  to 

fortoRlco,       ,  .  ^  ^  '_,.  V>t  11 

Guam,         this    couutry   rorto  Kico,    Guam,   and   the 
pp  es  pyijppjQg  Islands,  receiving   in  return  the 
sum  of  $20,000,000. 


U.  S.   BATTLESHIP  OKLAHOMA 


4    R    C  J'    I    C  OC   BAN     v"^  \^A  V 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  ITS  POSSESSIONS 
Shown  by  shading,  and  by  names  in  heavy  type. 

TERRITORIAL  GROWTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
With  Comparative  Areas. 


Area  of  the  Original  Thirteen  States 

1789 892,135 

Austria-Hungary,  German  Em- 


pire, France  and  Spain 
Louisiana  Purchase  1803   . 
Oregon  1805-1846      .    .     . 

Sweden  and  Norway  .    . 
Florida  Purchase  1819  .     . 

England  and  Scotland  . 
Texas  Annexation  1845 

Austria-Hungary,      Italy 
Switzerland   .... 
Mexican  Cessions  1848-1853 


8U,801t 
827,986 
286,541 
297,005 
72,101 
88,739 
389,166 


and 


367,583 
558,860 


Mexico 767,005 

Alaska  1867 590,884 

German   Empire-    France    and 

Spain 603,862 

Hawaiian  Islands  1898 6,449 

Connecticut  and  Jthode  Island    .  6,213 

Porto  Rico  1898 3,435 

Delaware 2,370 

Guam,  Wake  and  Tutuila  Islands 

1898-1899 287 

Philippine  Islands  1898      ....  115,026 

Italy 110,550 

Panama  Canal  Zone  1904  ....  436 


Total  Area  of  United  States  and  its  Possessions  1913 3,743,306 

Total  Area  of  Europe S,75k,282 


TERRITORIES  AND  PUBLIC  LANDS  2ls 

(10)  In  addition  to  these  important  annexations,  the 
United  States  has  acquired  title  to  a  number  of  small 
islands,  including  a  few  guano  islands  off  the 

coast  of  South  America  and  in  the  Gulf  of  and  minor 
Mexico ;  also  Midway,  Baker,  and  Wake  Is-    *  ^  * 
lands  in  the  Pacific ;  and  (in  1899)  several  of  the 
Samoan  Islands,   the    most  important    of   which   is 
Tutuila. 

(11)  In  1904  the  Republic  of  Panama  ceded  to  the 
United  States  perpetual  control  of  a  strip  of  Panama 
land  extending  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  ^"^^^  ^°^^ 
five   miles   in  width    on    either   side    of   the   canal 
route  .^ 

247.  Territorial  Policy  of  the  United  States.  These 
are  the  annexations  which  have  pushed  our  frontier 
farther  and  farther  westward,  until  to-day 
our  great  Republic  has  the  Pacific  for  its  lor  state- 
western  boundary ;  and  instead  of  the  orig- 
inal thirteen,  forty-eight  stars  shine  in  the  clear  blue 
of  our  flag.    With  few  exceptions,  the  States  which 
have  entered  the  Union  since  1789  were  first  governed 
by  Congress  as  territories.^  Sometimes  statehood  ha& 
been  granted  almost  immediately,  so  rapidly  has  the 
territory  developed  in  population  and  resources;  while 
again,  as  in  the  case  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
Congress  has  insisted  upon  a  long  period  of  tutelage 
before  admitting  the  territory  to  the  family  of  States. 

When  a  new  territory  is  organized.  Congress  at  first 
holds  the  reins  of  government  firmly  in  its  own  hands. 

1  The  price  paid  by  the  United  States  was  $10,000,000. 

2  The  States  which  hav«  never  been  ttrritories  of  the  United  States 
include,  besides  the  original  thirteen,  Maine,  Vermont,  Kentucky, 
West  Virginia,  Texas,  and  California. 


220  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

After  a  few  years,  important  powers  of  self-govern- 
ment are  granted,  in  order  that  the  people  of  the 
territory  may  have  the  political  training  necessary  for 
citizens  of  a  future  State.  Our  policy  in  this  respect 
dates  back  to  a  famous  territorial  ordinance,  older 
even  than  our  national  constitution  itself.  This  is  the 
Ordinance  of  1787,  concerning  which  Daniel  Webster 
said  that  he  doubted  "  whether  any  single  law  of  any 
lawgiver,  ancient  or  modern,  has  produced  effects  of 
more  distinct,  marked,  and  lasting  character." 

248.  The  Ordinance  of  1787.   This  ordinance  was 

adopted    by    Congress   for  the   government  of  the 

^     reo-ion  north  and  west  of  the  Ohio  River, 

The  North-         ,  .   ,      .         ,         ,  p      i  •    i  i 

westTerri-  which  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  was  known  as  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory. Under  the  Treaty  of  Paris  which  closed  the 
Revolutionary  War  (1783),  Great  Britain  relinquished 
her  title  to  this  region.  A  number  of  the  States,  in- 
cluding New  York,  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  and 
Virginia,  asserted  their  claims  to  the  territory;  but 
it  was  finally  agreed  that  it  should  be  formed  into  a 
public  domain  to  be  held  by  Congress  for  the  com- 
mon benefit  of  all  the  States. 

The  Ordinance  of  1787  provided  that  for  the  first 
few  years  the  Northwest  Territory  should  have  a 
temporary  government,  the  laws  to  be  made 
of  Ordinance  by  the  govemor  and  three  judges  appointed 
by  Congress.  As  the  population  increased, 
this  temporary  government  was  to  be  replaced  by  a 
representative  territorial  government,  the  people  choos- 
inof  the  lower  house  of  the  lesfislature.  Not  more 
than  five  nor  fewer  than  three  States  were  to  be 


TERRITORIES   AND   PUBLIC   LANDS  221 

formed  from  this  region ;  and  statehood  was  promised 
as  soon  as  any  district  had  60,000  inhabitants.^ 

The  ordinance  prohibited  slavery  in  any  form; 
guaranteed  reHgious  freedom ;  and  declared  that  "  re- 
ligion, morality,  and  knowledge  being  necessary  to 
good  government  and  the  happiness  of  mankind, 
schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  forever  be 
encouraged." 

249.  Later  Territorial  Legislation.  Since  this  first 
great  ordinance.  Congress  has  passed  many  acts  for 
the  government  of  territories.  In  all,  twenty-  Temporary 
nine  territories  have  been  organized  within  ^^ent" 
the  boundaries  of  the  United  States,  all  of  go^e^^ent 
which  have  now  been  admitted  as  States.  In  nearly 
every  case,  the  same  general  plan  has  been  followed 
as  with  the  Northwest  Territory.  There  have  been 
two  stages  of  government :  (1)  a  temporary  organiz- 
ation over  which  the  people  of  the  territory  have 
little  or  no  control;  and  (2)  a  more  permanent  gov- 
ernment in  which  the  people  elect  the  legislature  and 
most  of  the  local  officials. 

250.  Representative  Territorial  Government.  Prior 
to  their  admission  to  the  Union,  twenty-nine  of  our 
forty-eight  States  were  governed  under  this  Executive 
second  type  of  territorial  government. ^  Un-  o"^*'®^* 
der  this  plan,  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  gov- 
ernor, appointed  by  the  President  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate.    The  powers  of  this  governor  are  quite 

^  Five  States  were  formed  from  this  region  :  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illi- 
nois, Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  Minnesota  also  received  a  portion  of 
the  old  Northwest  Territory. 

2  For  example,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  the  two  States  last  ad- 
mitted, were  under  territorial  government  for  over  half  a  century. 


222  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

similar  to  those  of  the  governor  of  a  State,  but  he  is 
directly  responsible  to  the  President,  to  whom  he 
reports  annually  on  the  condition  of  affairs  in  the 
territory.  Other  officers  are  the  secretary,  the  treas- 
urer, the  auditor,  and  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction. 

The  territorial  legislature  consists  of  two  houses, 
an  upper  house  or  council,  and  a  house  of  representa- 
tives. Members  of  both  branches  are  elected 

LGglsl&turo 

by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  territory  for  a 
term  of  two  years.  The  powers  of  the  legislature  are 
substantially  the  same  as  those  of  the  legislatures  of 
the  several  States. 

Judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  and  several 
district  courts,  the  judges  of  which  are  ap- 
pointed   by  the    President.    The  territorial 
legislature  has  power  to  establish  such  inferior  courts 
as  are  found  necessary. 

Each  territory  sends  to  the  House  of  Represent- 
Territoriai  ativcs  a  delegate,  who  has  the  salary  and 
Aeiegate  other  privileges  of  a  member,  except  the  right 
to  vote. 

251.  Admission  to  the  Union.  The  territorial  form 

of  government  is  always  regarded  as  preparatory  for 

statehood,  admission  to  the  Union  depending 

statehood  .  r  n 

and  its  con-  ou  the  will  of  Congrcss  (Sec.  123).  Once  ad- 
mitted, the  new  State  is  on  the  same  footing 
as  every  other  State,  with  equal  rights  and  powers. 
Moreover,  once  in  the  Union,  a  State  cannot  under 
any  circumstances  withdraw  or  secede ;  for  the  Civil 
War  has  forever  settled  the  principle  that  ours  is  "  an 
indestructible  Union  of  indestructible  States." 


TERRITORIES   AND   PUBLIC   LANDS  22S 

252.  Continental  and  Insular  Territories.  The  ter- 
ritories now  belonging  to  the  United  States  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups :  first,  the  continental  terri- 
tories ;  and  second,  the  insular  territories  or  depend- 
encies. 

The  continental  territories  include  Alaska  and  the 
Panama  Canal  Zone.  Since  1912,  Alaska  has  had  a 
representative  territorial  government,  similar  to  that 
described  in  Sec.  250.  The  Panama  Canal  Zone  is 
governed  by  a  commission  of  seven  members. 

253.  The  District  of  Columbia.  Among  the  powers 
which  the  constitution  confers  upon  Congress  is  the 
risrht  "to  exercise  exclusive  les^islation  in  all 

^  ,  1      1-       •       /  Seat  of  the 

cases  whatsoever  over  such  district  (not  ex-  national 

T         ,  •!  X  1  .  government 

ceedmg  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession 
of  particular  States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress, 
become  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States."  In  1790  the  States  of  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia ceded  to  the  United  States  a  district  ten  miles 
square  lying  upon  the  banks  of  the  Potomac  ;  but 
the  part  upon  the  south  bank  was  given  back  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1846,  reducing  the  district  to  its  present  area 
of  about  seventy  square  miles. 

The  government  of  the  district  differs  radically 
from  that  which  prevails  in  other  territories,  since  the 
residents  are  completely  disfranchised.  They 

,  t  ,  Governed 

have  no  vote  in  the  election  of  either  local  bycommia- 

or  national  officials,  nor  are  they  represented 

in  Congress  by  a  delegate.  The  District  is  governed 

by  three  commissioners  appointed  by  the  President, 

who  are  responsible  for  the  administration  of  local 

affairs. 


«24  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

254.  Insular  Territories  or  Dependencies.  The  in- 
sular dependencies  of  the  United  States  include  Hawaii, 
Acduisition  ^^^^^^^  i"  1898;  Porto  Rico,  the  Philip- 
pines, and  Guam,  acquired  in  1899  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  war  with  Spain ;  a  few  islands  of  the 
Samoan  group  acquired  by  treaty  with  Great  Britain 
and  Germany  in  1900 ;  and  three  small  Pacific  islands 
—  Wake,  Midway,  and  Baker  Islands,  claimed  by 
right  of  discovery  since  1898. 

Of  these  dependencies,  Hawaii,  Porto  Kico,  and 
the  Philippines  possess  representative  territorial  gov- 
Pormof  ernments,  similar  to  that  which  has  been 
government  gj-^nted  to  our  Continental  territories.  Such 
minor  dependencies  as  Guam  and  the  Samoan  Islands 
are  under  the  control  of  the  officers  commanding  the 
naval  stations;  while  Midway,  Baker,  and  Wake  Is- 
lands require  no  government,  being  practically  unin- 
habited. 

255.  Hawaii.  Hawaii  is  governed  under  an  act  of 
Congress  passed  in  1900.  This  act  confers  citizenship 
in  the  United  States  upon  the  citizens  of  Hawaii.  The 
President  appoints  the  governor ;  and  this  officer,  with 
the  consent  of  the  territorial  Senate,  appoints  the  chief 
executive  officials. 

256.  Porto  Rico.  Porto  Rico  is  governed  under  an 
organic  act  passed  by  Congress  in  1917.  This  law 
Represen-  granted  representative  territorial  government 
territorial  *^  Porto  Rico,  and  made  the  people  of  the 
government  island  citizeus  of  the  United  States.  The 
President  appoints  the  governor  of  Porto  Rico ;  and 
this  officer  appoints  all  except  two  of  the  heads  of  the 
executive  departments.  The  legislature  consists  of  two 


TERRITORIES  AND   PUBLIC   LANDS  225 

houses,  both  elected  by  the  Porto  Ricans,  all  male 
citizens  over  twenty-one  having  the  right  to  vote. 

257.  The  Philippine  Islands.  The  problem  of  es- 
tablishing a  suitable  government  for  the  Philippines 
has  proven  a  difficult  one,  because  these  is- 

1        1  •    1     1  •       1   1  PI  A  difficult 

lands  are  mhabited  by  races  or  almost  every  prowemof 

.  p     1         1  J     p  i         •        government 

stage  01  development  irom  savagery  to  civ- 
ilization. The  United  States  took  control  of  the  Phil- 
ippines with  the  idea  of  educating  their  people  so  that 
they  would  become  capable  of  self-government.  Great 
progress  has  already  been  made  in  this  direction,  and 
the  Filipinos  have  been  promised  independence  when 
they  show  that  they  are  capable  of  managing  their  own 
affairs.  The  present  government  is  in  accordance  with 
an  act  passed  by  Congress  in  1902,  and  consists  of  a 
central  government  over  the  entire  archipelago,  with 
subordinate  provincial  and  municipal  governments. 

Executive  powers  are  vested  in  a  governor-general 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  serving  during  his 
pleasure.  This  officer  has  the  usual  powers  of 
a  territorial  governor ;  he  appoints  the  heads 
of  the  executive  departments  with  the  consent  of  the 
Philippine  Senate,  and  may  veto  any  act  of  the  terri- 
torial legislature.  The  President  also  appoints  an  audi- 
tor and  deputy-auditor  for  the  Philippines,  besides  a 
vice-governor  who  serves  as  head  of  the  department  of 
public  instruction. 

The  legislature  consists  of  two  houses,  a  senate  and 
a  house  of  representatives.  Members  of  both 
houses  are  elected  by  the  people,  except  from 
a  single  district  inhabited  by  the  more  backward 
tribes. 


no  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

258.  The  Public  Domain.  More  than  two  thirds 
of  the  present  area  of  the  United  States  has  at  one 
Howdis-  ti^6  ^^  another  formed  a  part  of  the  public 
posed  of  domain  belonging  to  the  national  govern- 
ment. The  greater  part  has  been  disposed  of  in  vari- 
ous ways,  chiefly  by  sale  at  a  nominal  price  to  indi- 
vidual settlers,  or  as  bounties  for  military  or  naval 
service,  or  as  grants  to  promote  the  construction  of 
railroads,  or  in  aid  of  education  and  internal  improve- 
ments. 

About  682,000,000  acres  of  public  lands  are  still 
owned  by  the  national  government,  over  one  half  of 
The  Home-  which  is  in  Alaska,  and  most  of  the  remain- 
stead  Act  ^Qj,  -jj  ^]^g  States  west  of  the  104th  meridian. 
Under  the  Homestead  Act,  any  adult  citizen  of  the 
United  States  who  is  the  head  of  a  family,  and  is  not 
already  the  proprietor  of  160  acres  of  land,  is  entitled 
to  enter  a  quarter-section  (160  acres)  of  unappropri- 
ated public  land.  He  may  acquire  title  by  maintaining 
his  residence  upon  it,  improving  and  cultivating  the 
land  for  a  period  of  three  years,  and  the  payment  of 
nominal  fees. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  several  million  acres  of 
arid  land  have  been  reclaimed  through  irrigation  pro- 
irrigation  jccts  Constructed  by  the  national  govern- 
frojects  ment.  Lands  thus  made  available  for  agri- 
culture are  open  to  settlers  upon  payment,  in  small 
annual  installments,  of  a  sum  which  will  ultimately 
cover  the  cost  of  the  irrigation  projects. 

259.  National  Real  Estate.  The  national  govern- 
ment is  our  largest  owner  of  improved  real  estate, 
holding  two  thousand  separate  pieces  of  property. 


TERRITORIES   AND  PUBLIC   LANDS  227 

There  are  several  hundred  military  posts,  such  as  the 
Jefferson  Barracks,  near  St.  Louis,  Fort  Snell- 
ing,  near  St.  Paul,  and  Governor's  Island,  asaiand- 
in  New  York  Harbor.    There  are  also  many 
arsenals,  armories,  and  ordnance  depots;  nine  navy 
yards  at  various  points  along  the  coast;  and  1250 
lighthouses.    The  United  States  owns  hundreds  of 
public  buildings,  including  post-offices,  custom  houses, 
and  federal  court  buildings. 

We  have  seen  that  the  national  government  has  set 
aside  large  areas  of  public  lands  for  forest  reserves.  The 
most  famous  of  these  reserves  are  Yellow-  Forest  re- 
stone  Park,  the  Upper  Yosemite  Reservation,  ^®^®* 
the  Big  Trees  of  California,  and  the  Arkansas  Hot 
Springs  in  the  Ozark  Mountains.  All  of  these  reserves 
are  kept  up  as  national  parks,  and  policed  by  national 
authority. 

260.  Indian  Reservations.  There  are  numerous 
Indian  reservations,  most  of  them  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, with  a  total  area  of  40,000,000  acres,  and  a 
population  of  300,000  Indians.  Generally,  the  In- 
dians on  these  reservations  maintain  their  tribal  organ- 
ization ;  but  a  large  degree  of  control  is  exercised  by 
the  federal  government  through  the  Indian  agents, 
one  of  whom  exercises  supervision  over  each  tribe. 
Nearly  three  hundred  reservation  schools  are  main- 
tained by  the  federal  government,  besides  twenty-five 
Indian  schools  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  the 
most  famous  being  Hampton  and  Carlisle. 


PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 


QUESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  mark  off  with  different 
colors  the  various  territorial  annexations. 

2.  Discuss  the  method  of  admitting  a  State  into  the  Union. 

3.  Give  an  account  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  What  States 
were  formed  out  of  this  territory  ? 

4.  What  States,  besides  the  original  thirteen,  have  never  beer 
national  territories  ? 

5.  Bound  your  State.  Has  it  ever  been  part  of,  or  has  it  eve^ 
included,  another  State  ? 

6.  How  did  your  State  receive  its  name  ?  Its  nickname  ? 

7.  When  was  your  State  admitted  to  the  Union  ?  Describe  its 
territorial  government  prior  to  admission.  How  long  was  it 
an  organized  territory  ?  Give  a  history  of  the  steps  by  which 
admission  was  secured. 

8.  Why  was  the  capital  of  the  United  States  placed  under  the 
exclusive  control  of  Congress  ?  Why  was  the  present  form  of 
government  established  for  the  District  of  Columbia  ?  What 
political  rights  are  denied  to  residents  of  the  District  ? 

9.  Describe  the  city  of  Washington  —  street  plan,  principal  pub- 
lic buildings  and  places  of  interest,  monuments,  and  surround- 
ings. 

10.  Name  any  public  buildings,  forts,  or  reservations  in  your 
community  which  belong  to  the  federal  government. 

11.  Why  are  not  the  same  political  rights  accorded  to  our  insular 
possessions  as  to  continental  territories  ? 

12.  Is  it  likely  that  any  of  our  insular  possessions  will  ever  be 
admitted  as  States  ? 

13.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  constitution,  could  Texas  be  di- 
vided into  four  states  ?  Could  Indiana  and  Illinois  be  united 
into  a  single  State  ? 


CHAPTER  XIX 


OUR   NATIONAL    IDEALS 


261.  Why  we  should  study  History  and  Civics. 
We  have  studied  the  organization  of  our  government, 
and  the  work  which  it  performs.  We  have  seen  that 
it  is  a  representative  government,  that  its  welfare  de- 
pends upon  the  interest  which  the  citizens  take  in  it. 
Do  you  not  think,  then,  that  every  young  citizen 
should  be  familiar  with  the  history  of  our  country, 
which  abounds  in  glorious  deeds  and  great  achieve- 
ments? Should  you  not  also  study  our  country's 
government  and  institutions,  since  you  will  one  day 
help  to  carry  on  that  government?  Then,  too,  do  you 
not  wish  to  understand  clearly  the  great  ideals  for 
which  our  nation  stands  —  the  ideals  which  throw  so 
much  light  upon  our  national  development  ? 

262.  Self -Reliance  as  a  National  Ideal.  Foremost 
among  the  ideals  which  have  characterized  our  na- 
tional life  is  the  spirit  of  self-reliance.  The  very  first 
chapter  of  our  national  history  records  the  story  of  a 
man  who  arose  from  among  the  toilers  of  his  time, 
and  whom  eighteen  years  of  disappointed  hopes  could 
not  dismay.  It  tells  how  this  man,  holding  out  the 
promise  of  a  new  dominion,  at  last  overcame  the  oppo- 
sition of  royal  courtiers,  and  secured  the  tardy  support 
of  reluctant  rulers.  And  when,  at  Palos,  Columbus 
flung  to  the  breeze  the  sails  of  his  frail  craft,  and 
ventured  upon  that  unknown  ocean  from  which,  ac- 


«0  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

cording  to  the  belief  of  his  age,  there  was  no  hope 
of  return,  he  displayed  the  chief  characteristic  of  the 
American  people  —  the  spirit  of  self-reliance. 

263.  Self-Reliance  of  the  Early  Pioneers.  What 
is  this  spirit  ?  Emerson  has  expressed  it  in  a  sentence : 
"  We  will  walk  on  our  own  feet ;  we  will  work  with  our 
own  hands;  we  will  speak  our  own  minds."  This  was 
the  spirit  which  animated  that  little  group  of  colo- 
nists who  preferred  the  unknown  hardships  of  the  new 
world  to  the  certain  tyranny  of  the  old  ;  who  chose  to 
break  old  ties,  to  brave  the  sea,  to  face  the  loneliness  and 
perils  of  life  in  a  strange  land  —  a  land  of  difficulties 
and  dangers,  but  a  land  of  liberty  and  opportunity. 

264.  Our  Revolution  a  Demand  for  Home  Rule. 
If  we  follow  these  pioneers  in  our  fancy,  we  see  them 
clearing  the  unbroken  wilderness,  and  dotting  the 
clearings  with  homes  and  churches  and  schools.  We 
understand,  too,  how  inevitably  the  sturdy  self-reli- 
ance of  these  early  pioneers  led  to  the  revolt  against 
the  mother  country.  The  taxes  levied  by  Great  Britain 
upon  her  colonies  in  America  were  not  excessive  or 
burdensome;  but  underlying  the  dispute  over  taxa- 
tion was  the  fundamental  issue  of  home  rule.  Were 
the  colonies  to  be  governed  by  a  Parliament  across 
the  sea,  whose  laws  regulating  commerce  and  trade 
were  framed  primarily  in  the  interest  of  the  mother 
country  ?  Or  were  they  to  regulate  their  own  affairs 
and  to  map  out  their  own  destinies?  This  was  the 
real  issue  underlying  the  Stamp  Act  and  the  Town- 
shend  Acts,  the  Non-Importation  Agreement  and  the 
Boston  Massacre,  the  burning  of  the  Gaspee,  and  the 
five  Intolerable  Acts.  It  was  this  issue  of  self -govern* 


OUR   NATIONAL   IDEALS  231 

ment  and  self-control  that  finally  led  the  little  group 
of  colonies  scattered  along  the  Atlantic  coast  to  throw 
down  the  gage  of  battle  to  the  mistress  of  the  seas. 

265.  How  Self-Reliance  has  influenced  Our  His- 
tory. Later  chapters  of  our  national  history  record 
the  same  story  of  sturdy  self-reliance.  The  Barbary 
pirates  levied  tribute  upon  our  merchantmen :  we  be- 
came a  naval  power.  France  and  Great  Britain  struck 
at  our  commerce :  we  fought  a  second  war  for  the 
freedom  of  the  seas.  Three  powerful  European  mon- 
archies united  to  crush  the  spirit  of  liberty  in  South 
America :  our  country  announced  the  famous  Monroe 
Doctrine,  a  declaration  of  home  rule,  that  the  Ameri- 
can continents  were  henceforth  to  be  ruled  by  the 
people  of  America.^  Mexico  declared  war  upon  Texas : 
she  lost  California.  Spain  waged  a  cruel  and  useless 
conflict  in  Cuba :  she  was  driven  from  the  western  hemi- 
sphere, and  from  the  Philippines  as  well.  Meantime  our 
population  has  increased  from  three  to  ninety  millions: 
instead  of  thirteen,  forty-eight  States  are  members  of 
our  federal  Union,  and  the  feeble  third-rate  power  of 
Jefferson's  day  has  developed  into  one  of  the  fore- 
most nations  of  the  world. 

266.  How  Each  Citizen  may  promote  this  Ideal. 
In  order  that  our  country  may  continue  this  proud 
record  of  self-reliance,  each  one  of  us  has  a  special 
obligation.  Every  citizen  in  his  individual  life  should 
live  up  to  the  same  ideal  of  self-reliance.  The  young 

1  The  Holy  Alliance,  formed  in  1815,  included  the  Emperors  of 
Russia  and  Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  France  being  soon  after- 
wards admitted.  The  real  object  of  the  Alliance  was  to  support  the 
despotic  powers  of  the  several  sovereigns,  and  to  repress  movements 
looking  toward  the  establishment  of  constitutional  government. 


232  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

citizen  who  relies  on  himself,  who  does  honest  work 
in  school,  never  cheating  or  shirking,  who  is  always 
ready  to  do  a  little  more  than  is  actually  required  of 
him,  who  thinks  for  himself,  acts  rightly  because  he 
loves  right  actions —  such  a  citizen  is  doing  his  part  in 
helping  to  achieve  our  national  ideal  of  self-reliance. 
267.  Second  American  Ideal  —  The  Spirit  of  De- 
mocracy. No  doubt  many  of  you  have  read  the  De- 
claration of  Independence,  the  great  charter  which 
declared  the  United  States  a  free  and  independent 
nation ;  and  as  you  may  remember,  the  Declaration 
asserts  that  "  all  men  are  created  equal."  This  does 
not  mean  that  all  men  are  equal  in  property  or 
wealth,  or  that  all  have  equal  abilities ;  for  we  have 
only  to  look  about  us  to  know  that  this  is  not  the 
case.  The  equality  asserted  in  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence is  equality  before  the  law,  the  democratic 
equality  of  rights  and  privileges  as  citizens.  In  our 
free  country,  all  men,  whether  rich  or  poor,  have  the 
same  political  and  civil  rights.  All  are  equally  entitled 
to  the  protection  of  government,  to  the  use  and  en- 
joyment of  their  property,  to  help  elect  the  officers 
who  make  and  enforce  our  laws.  These  rights  are  not 
based  on  wealth,  or  talent,  or  station  in  life,  but  on 
the  fact  of  manhood  alone.  They  belong  to  men  as 
human  beings.  This  is  the  spirit  of  true  democracy ; 
and  this  equality  of  man  is  the  second  of  America's 
national  ideals.  With  us  there  can  be  no  titled  aris- 
tocracy with  special  privileges  :  ours  is  the  democracy 
of  Robert  Burns  :  — 

"  Tlie  honest  man,  tho  e'er  eae  poor, 
Is  king  o'  men,  for  a'  that." 


OUR  NATIONAL  IDEALS  ^S 

a68.  Democracy  means  Equality  of  Opportunity. 
Our  history  is  filled  with  examples  of  men  like  Jack- 
son, Lincoln,  and  Garfield,  who  availed  themselves  of 
this  democratic  equality  of  opportunity,  and  rose  from 
humble  origin  to  the  highest  of&ce  in  the  Republic. 
Few  of  us,  indeed,  may  ever  attain  high  honors  as 
statesmen,  and  perhaps  none  of  us  may  acquire  great 
wealth,  measured  in  dollars  and  cents.  But  every  young 
citizen  has  an  equal  opportunity  to  do  all  that  his  abili- 
ties permit :  his  talents  are  the  only  measure  of  his 
opportunities.  In  this  country,  we  do  not  ask  who  is 
backing  the  young  man,  or  what  are  his  family  con- 
nections, or  what  is  his  religion,  or  his  politics.  We  ask 
only,  what  can  the  boy  do?  What  has  he  learned,  and 
how  has  he  prepared  himself  to  fulfill  his  part  as  a 
worker  in  the  great  world-hive  of  industry? 

If  a  man  is  dishonest  and  tries  to  get  without  toil 
what  is  not  rightly  his,  or  if  he  is  an  idler,  a  drone  in 
the  hive,  we  call  him  an  unworthy  citizen,  no  matter 
what  his  wealth  or  social  position.  But  if  a  man  is 
hard-working,  pure,  and  honest,  we  respect  and  honor 
him,  whether  he  is  a  day  laborer  or  a  wealthy  manu- 
facturer. For  all  honest  labor  is  equally  honorable ; 
and  the  test  of  good  citizenship  is  not  what  kind  of 
work  a  man  does,  but  how  well  he  does  the  work  that 
is  given  him  to  do.  And  the  true  measure  of  success 
in  life  is  not  how  great  a  thing  we  do,  but  how  well 
we  do  the  thing  that  is  to  be  done. 

269.  The  Ideal  of  Free  Public  Education.  The  most 
effective  means  of  securing  this  equality  of  opportunity 
is  through  our  system  of  public  schools ;  hence  free 
public  education  is  one  of  the  ideals  most  cherished 


234  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

by  the  American  people.  In  earlier  times,  and  through* 
out  the  greater  part  of  the  world's  history,  it  was  only 
considered  necessary  to  educate  the  leaders  of  society, 
leaving  the  mass  of  the  people  in  dense  ignorance. 
Schools  were  for  the  wealthy  classes,  who  alone  could 
afford  to  pay  for  the  privilege  of  education.  But  in 
America  we  believe  that  education  is  not  the  privilege 
of  the  few,  but  the  right  of  all.  In  our  public  schools, 
the  son  of  the  poorest  laborer  has  equal  opportunities 
with  the  child  of  the  wealthiest  capitalist.  Here  child- 
ren from  every  walk  of  life  are  associated  under  one 
roof,  studying  the  same  text  books,  instructed  by  the 
same  teachers,  living  the  life  of  that  greatest  of  de- 
mocracies, the  American  public  school. 

You  all  know  that  poverty  does  not  prevent  any 
boy  from  being  at  the  head  of  his  class ;  and,  indeed, 
it  often  happens  that  children  from  the  humblest 
homes  make  the  best  record  in  school.  No  matter  how 
much  money  a  man  may  have,  it  will  not  give  his  son 
an  education  unless  the  boy  has  the  ability  and  the 
desire  to  apply  himself  to  his  studies ;  and  unless  he 
does  this,  he  will  be  outdistanced  by  the  son  of  the 
poor  man  who  realizes  that  education  is  the  key  which 
unlocks  the  door  to  most  of  the  opportunities  of  life. 

270.  The  Ideal  of  Common  Humanity.  Another 
characteristic  of  our  national  life  is  the  ideal  of  com- 
mon humanity,  the  spirit  of  social  cooperation  which 
springs  from  the  desire  that  all  members  of  society 
shall  lead  happy  and  comfortable  lives.  You  will  learn 
in  your  later  study  of  history  that  for  countless  cen- 
turies it  was  only  the  few  who  shared  in  the  happiness 
and  comforts  of  civilization,  while  the  great  dumb 


OUR   NATIONAL   IDEALS  235 

multitude  toiled  in  misery  and  want  and  ignorance. 
But  to-day  we  realize  that  it  is  not  enough  for  a  small 
group  of  men  to  be  educated,  comfortable,  and  happy. 
Our  modern  ideal  of  humanity  requires  that  all  men 
shall  share  in  these  benefits.  So  the  one  supreme  ob- 
ject of  our  American  civilization  is  to  give  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  equal  opportunity  in  striving  for 
comfort,  happiness,  and  culture  —  for  all  in  life  worth 
seeking. 

271.  Influence  of  this  Ideal  upon  Our  National 
Life.  This  ideal  of  common  humanity  compelled  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  the  institution  so  inconsistent  with 
the  principles  of  free  government.  In  our  own  time, 
the  same  ideal  of  humanity  is  manifest  in  a  thousand 
ways.  It  has  led  to  the  laws  prohibiting  child  labor  in 
mines  and  factories ;  for  even  the  poorest  children 
must  share  in  the  benefits  of  our  modern  civilization. 
They  are  entitled  to  an  education  which  will  develop 
their  abilities  and  enlarge  their  opportunities;  and 
they  are  protected  in  this  right  by  laws  which  compel 
parents  to  send  their  children  to  school. 

In  many  other  ways  society  endeavors  to  bring  the 
comforts  of  life  within  reach  of  all.  The  laws  regulat* 
ing  the  construction  of  tenements  in  our  large  cities, 
the  legislation  intended  to  safeguard  the  conditions 
of  labor  and  to  improve  the  position  of  the  worker, 
the  many  voluntary  efforts  of  employers  to  cooperate 
in  every  movement  for  the  benefit  of  the  employed, 
the  support  given  to  such  institutions  as  our  public 
schools,  libraries,  art-galleries,  and  hospitals,  —  all  bear 
witness  to  this  ideal  of  common  humanity.  To-day  we 
are  beginning  to  realize  that  every  man  is  his  brother's 


236  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

keeper;  that  each  should  share  with  his  fellowmen 
the  good  things  o£  life,  and  cooperate  in  the  great 
work  of  uplifting  the  less  fortunate.  Those  of  you 
who  have  read  that  beautiful  poem  of  Lowell  in  which 
he  describes  the  search  for  the  Holy  Grail,  will  recall 
that  the  quest  ended  when  the  knight  shared  his  own 
cup  and  crust  with  the  beggar  at  his  gate :  — 

"In  many  climes,  without  avail, 
Thou  hast  spent  thy  life  for  the  Holy  Grail ; 
Behold  it  is  here,  —  this  cup  which  thou 
Didst  fill  at  the  streamlet  for  Me  but  now ; 
This  crust  is  My  body  broken  for  thee, 
This  water  His  blood  that  died  on  the  tree ; 
The  Holy  Supper  is  kept,  indeed. 
In  whatso  we  share  with  another's  need  ; 
Not  what  we  give,  but  what  we  share,  — 
For  the  gift  without  the  giver  is  bare ; 
Who  gives  himself  with  his  alms  feeds  three,  — 
Himself,  his  hungering  neighbor,  and  Me." 

272.  The  Ideal  of  International  Peace.  Another 
characteristic  of  our  national  life  is  the  ideal  of  inter- 
national peace.  No  country  has  done  more  than  our 
own  toward  promoting  the  movement  which  aims  at 
the  abolition  of  war,  and  the  establishment  of  inter- 
national justice  and  fraternity.  In  the  Geneva  Arbi- 
tration Treaty  of  1872,  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  gave  to  the  world  the  splendid  example  of 
friendly  arbitration  of  a  dispute  which  most  countries 
would  have  settled  by  war.  When  The  Hague  Court 
was  established  as  a  means  of  adjusting  international 
controversies,  the  United  States  and  Mexico  submit- 
ted the  first  case  for  decision.  During  the  war  be- 
tween Russia  and  Japan,  our  President  ofPered  the 


UUK   NATIONAL   IDEALS  237 

friendly  services  of  this  government  toward  bringing 
about  the  cessation  of  hostilities ;  and  the  result  was 
the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth,  which  ended  the  war. 

273.  The  Cost  of  War.  So  terribly  destructive  is 
modern  warfare,  so  burdensome  to  the  people  the  ex- 
pense of  armies  and  navies,  that  the  world  is  slowly 
turning  toward  arbitration  as  a  substitute  for  the  blind 
and  terrible  decision  of  war.  You  may  form  some 
idea  of  the  cost  of  warfare  from  our  Civil  War, 
which  cost  the  nation  700,000  human  lives  and  more 
than  seven  billion  dollars  in  property. 

274.  Agencies  in  Promoting  International  Peace. 
The  establishment  of  The  Hague  Tribunal,  and  the 
proposed  League  of  Nations,  are  the  expression  of  a 
desire  to  secure  peace  and  friendship  among  nations. 
To-day  the  world  is  counting  the  terrible  sacrifices 
resulting  from  its  necessary  war  to  crush  militarism. 
Intelligent  public  opinion  is  determined  to  make  war 
with  all  its  horrors  a  thing  of  the  past. 

The  young  citizens  of  our  schools  should  remember 
that  there  is  a  higher  and  a  nobler  ideal  than  to  die 
for  one's  country ;  and  that  is,  to  live  for  one's  coun- 
try. A  few  years  ago  a  vote  was  taken  in  the  schools 
of  France  upon  the  question,  "  Who  is  the  greatest 
hero  of  France?"  The  highest  vote  was  given,  not 
to  Napoleon,  the  greatest  soldier  of  history,  but  to 
Louis  Pasteur,  who  gave  his  life  to  help  cure  the  suf- 
fering of  the  world.  If  a  similar  vote  were  taken  in 
our  own  schools,  may  we  not  hope  that  first  place 
would  be  given  not  to  Washington  the  general,  but 
rather  to  Washington  the  President,  first  in  peace 
rather  than  first  in  war? 


238  PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

275.  The  Ideal  of  Patriotism.  Patriotism,  the 
greatest  of  our  national  ideals,  comprehends  all  the 
rest.  Love  of  country  is  a  sentiment  common  to  all 
peoples  and  ages ;  but  no  land  has  ever  been  dearer 
to  its  people  than  our  own  America.  No  nation  has 
a  history  more  inspiring,  no  country  has  institutions 
more  deserving  of  patriotic  love.  Turning  the  pages 
of  our  nation's  history,  the  young  citizen  sees  Colum- 
bus, serene  in  the  faith  of  his  dream ;  the  Mayflower, 
bearing  the  lofty  soul  of  the  Puritan  ;  Washington, 
girding  on  his  holy  sword ;  Lincoln,  striking  the 
shackles  from  the  helpless  slave ;  the  constitution, 
organizing  the  farthest  west  with  north  and  south 
and  east  into  one  great  Republic ;  the  tremendous  en- 
ergy of  free  life  trained  in  free  schools,  utilizing  our 
immense  natural  resources,  increasing  the  nation's 
wealth  with  the  aid  of  advancing  science,  multiplying 
fertile  fields  and  noble  workshops,  and  busy  schools 
and  happy  homes. 

This  is  the  history  for  which  our  flag  stands ;  and 
when  the  young  citizen  salutes  the  flag,  he  should 
think  of  the  great  ideals  which  it  represents.  The  flag 
stands  for  democracy,  for  liberty  under  the  law ;  it 
stands  for  heroic  courage  and  self-reliance,  for  equal- 
ity of  opportunity,  for  self-sacrifice  and  the  cause  of 
humanity;  it  stands  for  free  public  education,  and 
for  peace  among  all  nations.  When  you  salute  the 
flag,  you  should  resolve  that  your  own  life  will  be 
dedicated  to  these  ideals.  You  should  remember  that 
he  is  the  truest  American  patriot  who  understands  the 
meaning  of  our  nation's  ideals,  and  who  pledges  his 
own  life  to  their  realization. 


APPENDIX  A 

THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Preamble 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  per- 
fect union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide 
for  the  common  defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure 
the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain 
and  establish  this  constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 


Article  I.  Legislative  Department 

Section  I.  Congress  in  General 

All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives. 

Section  II.  HoiLse  of  Representatives 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and 
the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for 
electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  at- 
tained to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citi- 
zen of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an 
inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among 
the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by 
adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound 
to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed, 
three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be 
made  within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years, 
in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Repre- 
sentatives shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each 
State  shall  have  at  least  one  Representative;  and  until  such  enume- 
ration shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled 


ii  APPENDIX 

to  choose  three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence 
Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five.  New  York  six.  New  Jersey  four, 
Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten, 
A^or^A  Carolina  five,  Soi^^A  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State, 
the  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill 
such  vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
other  officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  III.  Senate 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 
Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six 
years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of 
the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into 
three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be 
vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year;  of  the  second  class, 
at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class,  at  the 
expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every 
second  year;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation  or  otherwise 
during  the  recess  of  the  legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive 
thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting 
of  the  legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that 
State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of 
the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  Presi- 
dent pro  tempore  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he 
shall  exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice 
shall  preside:  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further 
than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy 
any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States;  but 
the  party  convicted  shall,  nevertheless,  be  liable  and  subject  to  in- 
dictment, trial,  judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section  IV.  Both  Houses 
1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Sena* 


APPENDIX  ,Ti 

tors  and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the 
legislature  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make 
or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Sen- 
ators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  V.  The  Houses  Separately 

1.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and 
qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  con- 
stitute a  quorum  to  do  business;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn 
from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance 
of  absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties,  as 
each  house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  pun- 
ish its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence 
of  two  thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy,  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of 
either  house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those 
present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to 
any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  VI.  Privileges  and  Disabilities  of  Members 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensa- 
tion for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law  and  paid  out  of 
the  treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall,  in  all  cases  except 
treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest 
during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  houses, 
and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any  speech 
or  debate  in  either  house  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emolu- 
ments whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time;  and  no 
person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  mem- 
ber of  either  house  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

Section  VII.  Mode  of  Passing  Laws 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of 
Representatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with 
amendments  as  on  other  bills. 


iv  APPENDIX 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it, 
but  if  not  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in 
which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at 
large  on  their  journal  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such 
reconsideration  two  thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill, 
it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by 
which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  tw<r 
thirds  of  that  house  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the 
votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the 
names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered 
on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be 
returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted) 
after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law, 
in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their 
adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a 
law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except 
on  a  question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall 
be  approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  re- 
passed by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of 
a  bill. 

Section  VIII.  Powers  granted  to  Congress 

The  Congress  shall  have  power: 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay 
the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare 
of  the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be 
uniform  throughout  the  United  States; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform 
laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin, 
and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  secur- 
ities and  current  coin  of  the  United  States; 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing 
for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to 
their  respective  writings  and  discoveries; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court; 


APPENDIX  V 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and 
make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money 
to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws 
of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  mili- 
tia, and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively 
the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the 
militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over 
such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  author- 
ity over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the 
State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  maga- 
zines, arsenals,  dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings;  and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for 
carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers 
vested  by  this  constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

Section  IX.  Powers  denied  to  the  United  States 

1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the 
States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit  shall  not  be  pro- 
hibited by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  im- 
portation, not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  sus- 
pended, unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public 
safety  may  require  it. 

S.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  pro- 
portion to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be 
taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any 
State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce 
or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another;  nor 
shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear» 
or  pay  duties  in  another. 


vi  APPENDIX 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in  conse- 
quence of  appropriations  made  by  law;  and  a  regular  statement 
and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money 
shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States;  and 
no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall, 
without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolu- 
ment, office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince, 
or  foreign  state. 

Section  X.  Powers  denied  to  the  States 

1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confedera- 
tion; grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills  of 
credit;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  inpay- 
ment of  debts;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law 
impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of 
nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws;  and  the  net  pro- 
duce of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or 
exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States; 
and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the 
Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
duty  of  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter 
into  any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  State  or  with  t*  for- 
eign power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded  or  in  such 
imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 


Article  IT.  Executive  Department 

Section  I.  President  and  Vice-President 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term 
of  four  years,  and  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the 
same  term,  be  elected  as  follows: 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature 
thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  num- 
ber of  Senators  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  en- 
titled in  the  Congress;  but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  person 
holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be 
appointed  an  elector. 

3.  [The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  vote  hv 


APPENDIX  vii 

ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  leait  shall  not  be  an  inhab- 
itant of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a 
list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for 
each;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the 
President  of  the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the 
presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  hav- 
ing the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  num- 
ber be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if 
there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal 
number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  immedi- 
ately choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President;  and  if  no  person 
have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said 
House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President.  But  in  choosing 
the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation 
from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall 
consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and 
a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every 
case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice-Pre- 
sident. But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal 
votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-Pre- 
sident.] 1 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President;  neither  shall  any  person  be 
eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the 
United  States. 

y:c,.  6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
•'^^^^eath,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties 
of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and 
the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death, 
resignation,  or  inabihty,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President., 
declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer 
shall  act  accordingly  until  the  disability  be  removed  or  a  President 
shall  be  elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 
compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  dur- 
ing the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall 
not  receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States  or  any  of  them. 

>  Tha  clause  of  the  constitutioB  hai  been  snpeneded  hj  the  twolfth  amendment* 


viii  APPENDIX 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office  he  shall  take  the 
following  oath  or  affirmation : 

"I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my 
ability  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States." 

Section  IL  Powers  of  the  President 

1.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may 
require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties 
of  their  respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  re- 
prieves and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  except 
in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators 
present  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  ad- 
vice and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other 
public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all 
other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not 
herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by 
law;  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such 
inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in 
the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that 
may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  conmiis- 
sions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  III.  Duties  of  the  President 

He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  of 
the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such 
measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on 
extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them, 
and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them  with  respect  to  the  time 
of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall 
think  proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  minis- 
ters; he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and 
shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  IV.  Impeachment 

The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for  and  con- 


APPENDIX  ix 

viction  ot  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemean- 
ors. 

Article  III.  Judicial  Department 

Section  I.  United  States  Courts 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may 
from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the 
supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good 
behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a 
compensation  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continu- 
ance in  office. 

Section  II.  Jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  Courts 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority;  to 
all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  con- 
suls; to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction;  to  con- 
troversies to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party;  to  contro- 
versies between  two  or  more  States;  between  a  State  and  citizens 
of  another  State;  between  citizens  of  different  States;  between 
citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different 
States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign 
States,  citizens,  or  subjects.  ^ 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  be- 
fore mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdic- 
tion, both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and  under  such 
regulations,  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall 
be  by  jury;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the 
said  crimes  shall  have  been  committed;  but  when  not  committed 
within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the 
Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Section  III.  Treason 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levy- 
ing war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them 
aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless 
on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  con- 
fession in  open  court. 

^  Thia  clause  has  been  amended.  See  Amendments,  Article  XL 


X  APPENDIX 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood 
or  forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

Article  IV.  —  The  States  and  the  Federal  Government 

Section  I,  State  Records 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public 
acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And 
the  Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which 
such  acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect 
thereof. 

Section  II,  Privileges  of  Citizens,  etc, 

1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges 
and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State, 
shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which 
he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  juris- 
diction of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the 
laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any 
law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor, 
but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  serv- 
ice or  labor  may  be  due.^ 

Section  III.  New  States  and  Territories 

1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union; 
but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  juris- 
diction of  any  other  State;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  two  or  more  States  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  legislatures  of  the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the 
Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other 
property  belonging  to  the  United  States;  and  nothing  in  this  con- 
stitution shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the 
United  States  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Section  IV.  Guarantees  to  the  States 

The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union 
a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 

>  This  clause  has  been  nullified  by  Amendment  xm,  which  abolishes  slavery. 


APPENDIX  xi 

against  invasion,  and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the 
Executive  (when  the  legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  do- 
mestic violence. 

Article  V.  Power  of  Amendment 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem 
it  necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  constitution,  or, 
on  the  application  of  the  legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several 
States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which  in 
either  case  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes  as  part  of  this 
constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three  fourths  of 
the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as 
the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the 
Congress,  provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior 
to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any 
manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of 
the  first  article;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be 
deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

Article  VI.  Public  Debt,  Supremacy  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, Oath  of  Office,  Religious  Test 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before 
the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the 
United  States  under  this  constitution  as  under  the  Confedera- 
tion. 

2.  This  constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which 
shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or 
which  shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land;  and  the  judges  in  every 
State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  constitution  or  laws 
of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
members  of  the  several  State  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and 
judicial  officers  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States, 
shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support  this  constitution; 
but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any 
office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

Article  VII.  Ratification  of  the  Constitution 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  suf- 
ficient for  the  establishment  of  this  constitution  between  the  States 
so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States 
present,  the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord,  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of 


xii  APPENDIX 

the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth. 
In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 

George  Washington,  President,  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 
New  Hampshire  —  John  Langdon,  Nicholas  Oilman. 
Massachusetts  —  Nathaniel  Gorham,  Rufus  King. 
Connecticut  —  William  Samuel  Johnson,  Roger  Sherman. 
New  York  —  Alexander  Hamilton. 
New   Jersey  —  William  Livingston,   David   Brearley,  William 

Paterson,  Jonathan  Dayton. 
Pennsylvania  —  Benjamin  Franklin,   Thomas  Mifflin,   Robert 

Morris,  George  Clymer,  Thomas  Fitzsimons,  Jared  IngersoU, 

James  Wilson,  Gouverneur  Morris. 
Delaware  —  George  Read,  Gunning  Bedford,  Jr.,  John  Dickin- 
son, Richard  Bassett,  Jacob  Broom. 
Maryland  —  James  McHenry,  Daniel  of  St.  Thomas  Jenifer, 

Daniel  Carroll. 
Virginia  —  John  Blair,  James  Madison,  Jr. 
North  Carolina  —  William  Blount,  Richard  Dobbs  Spaight, 

Hugh  Williamson. 
South  Carolina  —  John  Rutledge,  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinck- 

ney,  Charles  Pinckney,  Pierce  Butler. 
Georgia  —  William  Few,  Abraham  Baldwin. 

Attest:  William  Jackson,  Secretary. 


AMENDMENTS  i 

Article  I 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  re- 
ligion, or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the 
freedom  of  speech  or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peace- 
ably to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress 
of  grievances. 

Article  II 

A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free 
State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be 
infringed. 

Article  III 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  man- 
ner to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

1  The  first  ten  amendments  were  proposed  by  Congress,  September  25,  1789,  and  de- 
clared in  force  December  16,  1791. 


APPENDIX  xiii 


Article  IV 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses, 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures 
shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  prob- 
able cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly 
describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be 
seized. 

Article  V 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise 
infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand 
jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the 
militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger; 
nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice 
put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any 
criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of 
life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation. 

Article  VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to 
a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and 
district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  dis- 
trict shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  in- 
formed of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation;  to  be  confronted 
with  the  witnesses  against  him;  to  have  compulsory  process  for 
obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of 
counsel  for  his  defense. 

Article  VH 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall 
exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved, 
and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  reexamined  in  any 
court  of  the  United  States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  com- 
mon law. 

Article  VIII 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

Article  IX 

The  enumeration  in  the  constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not 
be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 


xiv  APPENDIX 


Article  X 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  constitu- 
tion, nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States 
respectively  or  to  the  people. 

Article  XI  * 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed 
to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted 
against  one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or 
by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  state. 

Article  XII  * 

1.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least, 
shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves;  they 
shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and 
in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they 
shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President  and 
of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of 
votes  for  each;  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  trans- 
mit sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate.  The  President  of  the 
Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, open  all  the  certificates  and  the  votes  shall  then  be 
counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for 
President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  no  person  have 
such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers 
not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the 
President.  But  in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken 
by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members 
from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives 
shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall 
devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following, 
then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  President. 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-Pre- 
sident shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if  no  person  have  a 

*  Proposed  by  Congress  March  5,  1794,  and  declared  in  force  January  8,  1798. 

■  Proposed  by  Congress  December  12,  1803,  and  declared  in  force  September  25,  1804. 


APPENDIX  XV 

majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate 
shall  choose  the  Vice-President;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall 
consist  of  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  ma- 
jority of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice/ 

3.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  Pre- 
sident shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States. 

Article  XIII  ^ 

1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  pun- 
ishment for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  con- 
victed, shall  exist  within  the  United  States  or  any  place  subject 
to  their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appro- 
priate legislation. 

Article  XIV  * 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  en- 
force any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of 
citizens  of  the  United  States;  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  per- 
son of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;  nor 
deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of 
the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  States 
according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number 
of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when 
the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for 
President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Representa- 
tives in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or 
the  members  of  the  legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male 
inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  par- 
ticipation in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation 
therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of 
such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens 
twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress, 
or  elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil 
or  military,  under  the  United  States  or  under  any  State,  who,  hav- 
ing previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an 
officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  legisla- 
ture, or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support 

*  Proposed  by  Congress  February  1,  1865,  and  declared  in  force  December  18,  186fl. 

*  Proposed  by  Congress  June  16,  1866,  and  declared  in  force  July  28,  1868. 


xvi  APPENDIX 

the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insur« 
rection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to 
the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds 
of  each  house,  remove  such  disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  author- 
ized by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall 
not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State 
shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insur- 
rection or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the 
loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations, 
and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate 
legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

Article  XV ' 

1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not 
be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on 
account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

Article  XVI' 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  in- 
comes, from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment 
among  the  several  states,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or 
enumeration. 

Article  XVTI' 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  "composed  of  two 
Senators  from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six 
years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each 
State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the 
most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  legislatures. 

2.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State 
in  the  Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue 
writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies:  Provided,  that  the  legisla- 
ture of  any  State  may  empower  the  executive  thereof  to  make 
temporary  appointments  until  the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by 
election  as  the  legislature  may  direct. 

3.  This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the 
election  or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as 
part  of  the  Constitution. 

1  Proposed  by  Congress  February  26,  1869,  and  declared  in  force  March  30,  1870. 

2  Proposed  by  Congress  July  12,  1909,  and  declared  in  force  February  25,  1913. 
8  Proposed  by  Congress  June  12,  1912.  and  declared  in  force  April  8,  1913. 


APPENDIX 


xvii 


Article  XVIII 

Sect.  1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the 
manufacture,  sale  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  within, 
the  importation  thereof  into,  or  the  exportation  thereof  from  the 
United  States  and  all  territories  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof 
for  beverage  purposes  is  hereby  prohibited. 

Sect.  2.  The  Congress  and  the  several  States  shall  have  con- 
current power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 


APPENDIX  B 

AREA  AND   POPULATION   OF    TERRITORIES 
AND  INSULAR  POSSESSIONS 


TERRITORY 

Date  of 
Acquisition 

Date  of 
Organization 

Area  Square 
Miles 

Population,  1910 

Alaska 

District  of  Columbia   .    . 

Guam 

Hawaii 

Panama  Canal  Zone     .     . 
Philippine  Islands  .     .     . 

Porto  Rico 

Tutuila  Group,  Samoa 
Virgin  Islands     .... 

1867 

1904 
1899 
1899 
1900 
1917 

1868 
1791 

1900 

1902 
1900 

590,884 

70 

210 

115,026 

3,435 

77 

150 

64,356 

331,069 

9,000 

191,909 

7,633,426 

1,118,012 

3,750 

33,000 

Total 

716,737 

9,384,522 

xyiii 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX  C 

AREA,  POPULATION,  AND  ELECTORAL  VOTES 
OF  THE  STATES,  1912 


STATS 


Alabama  .  .  . 
Arizona  .  .  . 
Arkansas  .  .  . 
California  .  . 
Colorado  .  .  . 
Connecticut  .  . 
Delaware  .  .  . 
Florida  .  .  . 
Georgia  .  .  . 
Idaho  .  .  .  . 
Illinois  .  .  . 
Indiana  .  .  . 
Iowa  .... 
Kansas  .  .  . 
Kentucky  .  . 
Louisiana  .  . 
Maine  .... 
Maryland  .  . 
Massachusetts  . 
Michigan  .  .  . 
Minnesota  .  . 
Mississippi  .  . 
Missouri  .  . 
Montana  .  .  . 
Nebraska  .  .  . 
Nevada  .  .  . 
New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey  .  , 
New  Mexico 
New  York  .  . 
North  Carolina 
North  Dakota  . 
Ohio  .... 
Oklahoma  .  . 
Oregon  .  .  . 
Pennsylvania 
Rhode  Island 
South  Carolina  . 
South  Dakota  . 
Tennessee .  .  . 
Texas    .... 

Utah 

Vermont  .  .  . 
Virginia  .  .  . 
Washington  .  . 
West  Virginia  . 
Wisconsin  .  .  . 
Wyoming .     .     . 

Total      .     . 


SS-2 


1819 

IQI2 
1836 
1850 
187s 
1788 
1787 
1845 
1788 
1890 
1818 
1816 
1846 
1861 
I79I 
1812 
1820 
1788 
1788 
1837 
1858 
1817 
182I 
1889 
1867 
1864 
1788 
1787 
I9I2 
1788 
1789 
1889 
1802 
1907 
1859 
1787 
1790 
1788 
1889 
1796 
184s 
1894 
I79I 
1788 
1889 
1863 
1848 
1890 


Area  Square 
Miles 


SI  .998 

113.950 

53.335 

158,297 

103,948 

4,965 

2,370 
58,666 
59.265 
83,888 
56,66s 
36,354 
56,147 
82,158 
40,598 
48,506 
33.040 
12,327 

8,266 
57,980 
84,683 
46,865 
69,420 
146,997 
77,520 
110,690 

9,341 

8,224 
122,634 
49,204 
52,426 
70,837 
41,040 
70,057 
96,699 
45,126 

1,248 
30,989 
77,615 
42,022 
265,896 
84,990 

9,564 
42,627 
69,127 
24,170 
56,066 
97,914 


3,026,719 


POPULATION 


1900 


1,828,697 

122,931 

1,311,564 

1,485,053 

539,700 

908,420 

184,73s 

528,542 

2,216,331 

161,772 

4,821,550 

2,516.462 

2,231,853 

1,470,49s 

2,147,174 

1,381,625 

694,466 

1,188,044 

2,805,346 

2,420,982 

1,751,394 

1,551,270 

3,106,665 

243,329 

1,066,300 

42,335 

411,588 

1,883,669 

195.310 

7,268,894 

1,893,810 

319,146 

4,157.545 

790,391 

413.536 

6,302,115 

428,556 

1,340,316 

401,570 

2,020,616 

3,048,710 

276,749 

343.641 

1,854,184 

518,103 

958,800 

2,069,042 

92,531 


75,715.857 


1910 


2,138.093 

204,354 
1,574.449 
2,377.549 

799,024 
1,114,756 

202,322 

752,619 
2,609,121 

325,594 
5,638,591 
2,700,876 
2,224,771 
1,690,949 
2,289,90s 
1,656,388 

742,371 
1,295,346 
3,366,416 
2,810,173 
2,075,708 
1,797,114 
3,293.33s 

376,053 

1,192,214 

81,875 

430,572 
2,537.167 

327,301 
9,113,614 
2,206,287 

577.056 
4,767,121 
1,657.155 

672,765 
7,665,111 

542,610 
1,515,400 

583,888 
2,184,789 
3,896,542 

373,351 

355.956 
2,061,612 
1,141,990 
1,221,119 
2,333,860 

145.965 


91,641,197 


APPENDIX  xix 


APPENDIX  D 

ILLUSTRATIVE  MATERIAL  FOR   THE  STUDY  OF 
GOVERNMENT 

Local  Governments. 

1.  A  map  of  the  pupil's  State,  showing  the  counties. 

2.  An  enlarged  map  of  the  pupil's  county,  showing  its  subdivisions. 

3.  Reports  of  county  and  town  or  township  oflBcers. 

4.  Ballots  used  at  county  elections. 

5.  A  collection  of  legal  notices  from  the  local  papers. 

6.  Copies  of  the  more  common  legal  blanks  (deeds,  mortgages,  etc.). 

7.  Town-warrants,  tax-bills,  and  other  town  documents. 

8.  The  State  constitution  and  revised  statutes. 

9.  The  manual  of  the  State  legislature. 

10.  The  city  charter  and  ordinances. 

11.  A  copy  of  the  city  manual  for  each  pupil. 

12.  A  map  of  the  city  showing  ward  lines  and  election  precincts. 

13.  The  city  council  calendar. 

14.  Copies  of  measures  introduced  into  the  council,  and  of  ordinaneei 
published  in  the  daily  papers. 

15.  Reports  of  the  several  municipal  departments  and  officers. 

16.  A  declaration  of  taxable  property  and  a  tax-bill. 

17.  Copies  of  tally-sheets  used  at  elections. 

18.  Copies  of  nomination  petitions,  if  used. 

19.  Copies  of  the  ballots  used  at  municipal.  State,  and  national  elections* 
£0.  A  copy  of  the  jury  list. 

21.  A  set  of  the  forms  used  in  civil  and  criminal  actions. 


State  Governments.    , 

1.  Copies  of  the  constitution  and  revised  statutes  of  the  pupil's  own 
SUte. 

2.  A  collection  of  the  constitutions  of  all  the  States.  The  most  recent 
and  complete  is  F.  N.  Thorpe's  The  Federal  and  State  ConMitutionSy 
Colonial  Charters^  and  other  Organic  Laws  (1909). 

3.  A  good  text-book  on  the  government  of  the  pupil's  own  State,  such 
as  the  Handbooks  of  American  Government,  edited  by  L.  B.  Evans. 

4.  The  manual  of  the  State  legislature. 

5.  A  volume  of  the  laws  made  during  a  legislative  session. 

6.  A  volume  of  the  reports  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

7.  A  map  of  the  pupil's  State,  showing  the  representative  and  soiatorial 
election  districts. 

8.  Copies  of  the  ballots  used  at  State  and  national  elections. 

9.  Copies  of  bills  which  have  been  introduced  into  the  legislature.  ' 

10.  Copies  of  the  calendar  and  the  journal  of  each  house  of  the  legislft" 
ture. 


APPENDIX 


The  National  Government. 

1.  A  large  political  map  of  the  United  States,  showing  territorial  ac- 
quisitions. 

2.  A  good  physiographic  map  of  the  United  States. 

8.  Abstract  of  the  Twelfth  Census,  and  the  statistical  atlas  of  the 
Twelfth  Census  (same  for  the  Thirteenth  Census,  as  soon  as  pub- 
lished). 

4.  The  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States. 

5.  The  United  States  Revised  Statutes. 

6.  Copies  of  the  House  Manual  and  the  Senate  Manual. 

7.  Latest  copy  of  the  Congressional  Directory. 

8.  The  Congressional  Record. 

9.  Reports  of  the  federal  departments  and  bureaus,  especially  those 
of  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion, the  Commissioner  of  Education,  the  Commissioner  of  Immigra- 
tion, the  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  the  Year- 
Book  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  Consular  Reports,  and 
the  Labor  Bulletins. 

10.  The  Executive  Register  (Government  Printing  Office). 

11.  Thorpe's  The  Federal  and  State  Constitutions.    This  contains  also  the 
early  charters  and  plans  of  Union. 


APPENDIX  E 

REFERENCE  BOOKS 
Chapter  I.  How  and  why  Governments  are  formed 


References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  pp.  1-4. 
Dunn,  Arthur  W.,  The  Community  and  the  Citizen  (1907),  chs.  I,  II. 
Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  chs.  ii-v. 
Keinsch,  Paul  S.,  The  Young  Citizen's  Reader  (1909),  eh.  i. 


References  for  Teachers 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  The  American  Federal  State  (1903),  ch.  i. 

Boynton,  F.  D.,  School  Civics  (1904),  chs.  i-ii. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

sees.  14,  15-26. 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  The  American  Government  (1900),  Introduction. 
Willoughby,  W.  W.,  The  Rights  and  Duties  of  American  Citizenship 

(1898),  part  i. 


APPENDIX  xxi 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  The  State  (1906),  ch.  i. 

Woodburn,  James  A.,   The  American   Republic  and  its   Government 
(1903),  chs.  i-xxi. 

Chapter  II.  What  Government  does  for  the 
Citizen,  and  what  the  Citizen  owes  to  his 
Government. 

References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  pp.  9-12. 
Dunn,  Arthur  W.,  The  Community  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  chs.  IX-XV- 
Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics    (1905),  ch.  xiii. 
Reinsch,  Paul  S.,  The  Ymng  Citizenh  Reader  (1909),  ch.  ii. 

References  for  Teachers 

Fiske,  John,  Civil  Government  in  the  United  States  (1904),  ch.  IV. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 
ch.  VI. 

Chapter  III.  The  Selection  of  Public  Officials 

References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  i. 

Bryce,  James,    The  American   Commonwealth  (1907),  ii,   chs.   LXVI, 

LXIX-LXXIII. 

Dunn,  A.  W.,  The  Community  and  the  Citizen  (1907),  pp.  168-175. 
Ford,  H.  J.,  The  Rise  and  Growth  of  American  Politics  (1898),  ch.  xvi. 
Guitteau,  W.  B,,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

ch.  xxxvii. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  ch.  iv. 

References  for  Teachers 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  chs.  Vii,  xxx. 

Fuller,  Robert  H.,  Government  by  the  People  (1908). 

Goodnow,  F.  J.,  City  Government  in  the  United  States  (1904),  ch.  vi. 

Merriam,  C.  E.,  Primary  Elections  (1908). 

Meyer,  E.  C,  Nominating  Systems;  Direct  Primaries  vs.  Conventions 

in  the  United  States  (1902). 
Schouler,  James,  Constitutional  Studies  (1904),  pp.  231-249. 


xxii  APPENDIX 

Stanwood,  Edward,  A  History  of  the  Presidency  from  1788  to  1896  (1898). 
Stanwood,  Edward,  A  History  of  the  Presidency  from  1897  to  1909  (1912). 
Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the  United 
States  (1909),  chs.  x,  xii,  xx. 

Chapter  IV.   Political  Parties  and  their  Work 

HefevencGS  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  ii. 

Ford,  H.  J.,  The  Rise  and  Growth  of  American  Politics  (1898),  chs. 

VII,  XXIII-XXV. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

ch.  XXXVI. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  ch.  V. 
Wilson,   Woodrow,    Constitutional   Government  in   the    United    States 

(1908),  ch.  VIII. 

References  for  Teachers 

Beard,  C.  A.,  The  American  Federal  State  (1903),  ch.  xxni. 

Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1907),  ii,  chs.  Liil-LVI, 

LIX-LXV. 

Fuller,  Robert  H.,  Government  by  the  People  (1908),  ch.  XI. 
Johnston,  Alexander,  History  of  American  Politics  (1902). 
Macy,  J.,  Party  Organization  and  Machinery  (1904). 
Macy,  J.,  Political  Parties  in  the  United  States  (1900). 
Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the  United 
States  (1909). 

Chapter  V.   The  Protection  of  the  Public 

References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  chs.  IV,  V. 

Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  ch.  li. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

chs.  VI,  XII,  XIII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  ch.  xxx. 

References  for  Teachers 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  pp.  568-577. 
Bliss,  W.  D.  P.,  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform  (1908)  ;  articles  on 
Temperanee,  Prohibition,  Faotory  Legislation,  and  Tenements. 


APPENDIX  xxiii 

McClain,  E.,  Constitutional  Law  (1905),  ch.  ix. 

Wright,  Carroll  D.,  Outline  of  Practical  Sociology  (1899),  chs.  xii,  xxni. 

Chapter  VI.  Public  Education 

Meferences  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  vi. 

Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  ch.  xlvi. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

ch.  XVI. 
Wright,  Carroll  D.,  Outline  of  Practical  Sociology  (1899),  ch.  XI. 

References  for  Teachers 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  The  American  Federal  State  (1903),  pp.  371-375. 
Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  pp.  624-627, 

746-751. 
Bliss,  W.  D.  P.,  and  others.  Encyclopedia  of  Social   Reform  (1908)  ; 

article  on  Education. 
Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1907),  ii,  ch.  cv. 
Dexter,  E.G.,  History  of  Education  in  the  United  States  (1906). 
Draper,  A.  S.,  American  Education  (1909). 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1900),  ch.  lvi. 

Chapter  VII.  Public  Charities 
References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  vil. 

Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  ch.  xlvi. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911^ 

ch.  XIV. 
Riis,  Jacob  A.,  Children  of  the  Poor  (1892). 

References  for  Teachers 

Addams,  Jane,  Philanthropy  and  Social  Progress  (1894). 
Alden,  Percy,  The  Unemployed  (1905). 
Davenport-Hill,  Florence,  Children  of  the  State  (1899). 
Devine,  Edward  T.,  The  Practice  of  Charity  (1904). 
Devine,  Edward  T.,  Principles  of  Relief  (1904:). 
Henderson,  C.  R.,  Modern  Methods  of  Charity  (1904). 
Henderson,  C.  R.,  Dependent,  Defective^  and  Delinquent  Classes  (1906), 
pp.  1-209. 


xxiv  APPENDIX 

Hobson,  J.  A.,  Problems  of  Poverty  (1899). 

Hunter,  Robert,  Poverty  (1904). 

Warner,  Amos  G.,  American  Charities  (1894). 

Wright,  Carroll  D.,  Outline  of  Practical  Sociology  (1899),  chs.  xviii,  xx. 


Chapter  VIII.  Government  and  Industry 

Heferences  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  vili. 
Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Economics  for  High  Schools  (1907),  ch.  xxxi. 
Burch,  H.  R.,  and  Nearing,  Scott,  Elements  of  Economics  (1912),  chs. 

VII,  VIII,  IX. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911i. 

ch.  XV. 
Wright,  C.  D.,  Outline  of  Practical  Sociology  (1899),  part  v. 

References  for  Teachers 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  pp.  721-742. 
Bullock,  C.  J.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Economics  (1900),  chs.  xi^ 

XIV,  XVI. 

Ely,  R.  T.,  Monopolies  and  Trusts  (1900). 

Fiske,  A.  K.,  The  Modern  Bank  (1909). 

Hadley,  A.  T.,  Railroad  Transportation  (1903),  ch.  VI. 

Jenks,  J.  W.,  The  Trust  Problem  (1909). 

Johnson,  Emory  R.,  American  Railway  Transportation  (1909),  chs.  vi, 

XV-XVIII,  XXV,  XXVII. 

Johnson,  Emory  R.,  Ocean  and  Inland  Water  Transportation  (1909), 
chs.  xxiv-xxix. 


Chapter  IX.  Town  and  County  Government 

References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  ix. 

Dunn,  Arthur  W.,  The  Community  and  the  Citizen  (1907),  ch.  xxi. 

Fairlie,  John  A.,  Local  Government  in  Counties^  Towns,  and  Villages 

(1906),  chs.  i-iii. 
Fiske,  John  A.,  Civil  Government  in  the  United  States  (1904),  chs.  ii-iv. 
Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  chs.  xxvi-xxviii. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

chB.  n-iii. 


APPENDIX  XXV 

References  for  Teachers 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  ch.  xxix. 
Bryce,  Jiimes,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1908),  i,  clis.  xlviii-xlix. 
Fairlie,  John   A.,  Local  Government  in  Counties^  Towns,  and  Villages 

(1906),  chs.  iv-xvi. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  ch.  x. 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  The  State  (1906),  sees.  1209-1259. 

Chapter  X.  The  Government  of  Cities 

Heferences  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  Roscoe  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  x. 
Dole,  Charles  F.,  The  Young  American  (1899)  ,  chs.  ii,  xiii-xiv. 
Dunn,  Arthur  W.,  Jlie  Community  and  the  Citizen  (1907),  ch.  xxii. 
Fiske,  John,  Civil  Government  in  the  United  States  (1904),  pp.  115-140. 
Willard,  Charles  D.,  City  Government  for  Young  People  (1906),  chg. 
ix-xxix. 

References  for  Teachers 

Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1908),  i,  ch.  L. 

Fairlie,  John  A.,  Municipal  Administration  (1901),  chs.  vin-xii,  xvn- 

XX, 

Goodnow,  J.  F.,  City  Government  in  the  United  States  (1904),  chs.  iv- 

XIII. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

chs.  v-vi. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  ch.  xi. 
Rowe,  L.  S.,  Problems  of  City  Government  (1908),  chs.  vi-ix. 
Wilcox,  Delos  F.,  The  American  City  (1904),  chs.  iv-xxix. 

Chapter  XI.  The  State  Governments 

References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  chs.  xi-xil. 
Clark,  S.  S.,  The  Government  (1902),  chs.  20,  28. 
Dole,  C.  F.,  The  Young  American  (1899),  ch.  xxi. 
Dunn,  A.  W.,  The  Community  and  the  Citizen  (1907),  ch.  xxin. 
Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1908),  chs.  xxii-xxiv. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 
chs.  vn-xi. 


xxvi  APPENDIX 

References  for  Teachers 

1.  Origin  of  State  Governments:  Fiske,  John,  The  American  Revolum 
Hon  (1891),  I ;  Greene,  E.  B.,  Provincial  America  (1905),  chs.  i-v,  xi, 
XVI  ;  Howard,  G.  E.,  Preliminaries  of  the  Revolution  (1905);  Thorpe, 
F.  N.,  Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States,  n,  pp.  1-165;  Thwaites, 
R.  G.,  The  Colonies  (1904)  ;  Woodburn,  James  A.,  The  American  Re- 
public and  its  Government  (1908),  ch.  i. 

2.  State  Constitutions:  Ashley,  R.  L.,  The  American  Federal  State 
(1903),  pp.  344-350  ;  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics 
(1910),  pp.  78-98,  445-460  ;  Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903), 
ch.  in;  Landou,  J.  S.,  The  Constitutional  History  and  Government  of  the 
United  States  (1905),  ch.  iv  ;  MeClain,  E.,  Constitutional  Law  in  the 
United  States  (1905),  ch.  ii ;  Thorpe,  F.  N.,  Constitutional  History  of 
the  United  States  (1901),  I,  pp.  166-184  ;  Woodburn,  James  A.,  The 
American  Republic  and  its  Government  (1908),  pp.  342-348. 

3.  The  State  Legislature:  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and 
Politics  (1910),  ch.  xxv;  Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  ch. 
XXII;  Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  ch.  vii ;  Reinsch,  P.  S., 
American  Legislatures  and  Legislative  Methods  (1907),  chs.  iv-x. 

4.  The  State  Executive :  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and 
Politics  (1910),  ch.  xxiv  ;  Finley,  J.  H.,  and  Sanderson,  J.  F.,  The 
American  Executive  and  Executive  Methods  (1908),  pp.  1-184  ;  Fiske, 
John,  Civil  Government  in  the  United  States  (1904),  pp.  175-179  ;  Hart, 
A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  ch.  viii ;  Wilson,  W.,  The  State  (1906), 
sees.  1174-1208. 

5.  The  State  Judiciary:  Baldwin,  Simeon  "E.,  The  American  Judi- 
ciary (1905),  chs.  vn-viii,  x-xi,  xiv,  xxii ;  Beard,  C.  A.,  American 
Government  and  Politics  (1910),  ch,  xxvi ;  Bryce,  James,  The  Amer- 
ican Commonwealth  (1907),  i,  ch.  xlvii  ;  ii,  chs.  ci,  cii ;  Forman, 
S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  ch.  xxiv  ;  Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Govern- 
ment (1903),  ch.  IX  ;  Wilson,  Woodrow,  Constitutional  Government  in 
the  United  States  (1908),  ch.  vi. 

Chapter  XII.  How  the  Expenses  of  Govern- 
ment ARE  MET 

Heferences  for  Pujnls 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  ill. 
Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Economics  for  High  Schools  (1907),  ch.  xxxii. 
Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1908),  i,  chs.  xvii,  XLm. 
Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  chs.  xxxv-xxxvii. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 
chs.  xvn,  XXIX. 


APPENDIX  xxvii 

Heferences  for  Teachers 
Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  chs.  xvni, 

XXXI. 

Bullock,  C.  J.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Economics  (1900),  ch.  xvii. 
Daniels,  W.  M.,  The  Elements  of  Public  Finance,  pp.  30-38,  167-170, 

186-191. 
Dewey,  D.  R.,  Financial  History  of  the  United  States  (1903),  chs.  iii, 

XXI. 

Ely,  R.  T.,  and  Wicker,  G.  R.,  Elementary  Principles  of  Economics 

(1904),  pp.  327-363. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  chs.  xxi-xxu. 
James,  J.  A.,  and  Sanford,  A.  H.,  Government  in  State  and  Nation 

(1903),  ch.  XVII. 
McClain,  E.,  Constitutional  Law  in  the  United  States  (1905),  pp.  137- 

142. 
Plehn,  C.  C,  Introduction  to  Public  Finance  (1897). 
Woodburn,  J.  A.,  The  American  Republic  and  its  Government  (1908), 

pp.  287-298. 

Chapter  XIII.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 

States 

References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  xin. 

Fiske,  John,  The  Critical  Period  of  American  History  (1888),  chs.  VI- 

vn. 
Forman,  S.  E.,  History  of  the  United  States  (1910),  ch.  xx. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

chs.  xviii-xix. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Formation  of  the  Union  (1893),  chs.  iii-v. 
Woodburn,  J.  A.,  and  Moran,  T.  F.,  Elementary  American  History  and 

Government  (1910),  chs.  xi-xn. 

References  for  Teachers 

1.  Origin  of  the  Federal  Government :  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Gov- 
ernment and  Politics  (1910),  ch.  ii  ;  Channing,  Edward,  Student\<i  His^ 
tory  of  the  United  States  (1905),  chs.  iv-vi  ;  Howard,  G.  E.,  Prelimi- 
naries of  the  Revolution  (1905),  chs.  vii-xi,  xiv-xvii;  McLaughlin, 
A.  C,  The  Confederation  and  the  Constitution  (1905),  chs.  iii-xi ; 
Schouler,  James,  Constitutional  Studies  (1904),  pp.  70-98  ;  History  of 
the  United  States  (rev.  ed.  1894),  i,  ch.  i;  Sparks,  Edwin,  The  United 


xxviii  APPENDIX 

States  of  America  (1904),  i,  chs.  i,  iv  ;  Van  Tyne,  C.  H.,  The  American 
Revolution  (1905),  ch.  xi. 

2.  The  Formation  of  the  Constitution:  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Gov- 
ernment  and  Politics  (1910),  ch.  in  ;  Landon,  J.  S.,  The  Constitutional 
History  and  Government  of  the  United  States  (1905),  pp.  65-124 ; 
McLaughlin,  A.  C,  The  Confederation  and  the  Constitution  (1905), 
chs.  xi-xviii ;  Sparks,  Edwin  E.,  The  United  States  of  America  (1904), 
I,  chs.  v-vi. 

3.  Amendment  and  Development  of  the  Constitution:  Beard,  C.  A., 
American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  ch.  iv  ;  Bryce,  James,  The 
American  Commonujealth  (1907),  i,  chs.  xxxi-xxxv  ;  Landon,  J.  S., 
The  Constitutional  History  and  Government  of  the  United  States  (1905), 
ch.  XV  ;  Schouler,  James,  Constitutional  Studies  (1904),  pp.  190-203; 
Woodburn,  J.  A.,  The  American  Republic  and  its  Government  (1908), 
pp.  86-93,  122,  274,  391. 

4.  Relations  of  Federal  and  State  Governments :  Bryce,  James,  The 
American  Commonwealth  (1907),  i,  chs.  ii,  iv,  xxvii-xxx;  Hart, 
A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  chs.  n,  vi ;  Landon,  J.  S.,  The  Con- 
stitutional History  and  Government  of  the  United  States  (1905),  ch.  xvn; 
Schouler,  James,  Constitutional  Studies  (1904),  pp.  115-155,  178-184, 
190-202  ;  Wilson,  Woodrow,  Constitutional  Government  in  the  United 
States  (1908),  ch.  vii ;  Woodburn,  J.  A.,  The  American  Republic  and 
its  Government  (1908),  ch.  n. 

Chapter  XIV.  Congress  and  its  Work 

Meferences  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  xrv. 
Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1907),  i,  chs.  x-xvi. 
Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

chs.  xxii-xxiv. 
Harrison,  Benjamin,  This  Country  of  Ours  (1903),  chs.  ii-in. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  chs.  xiii-xiv. 
Woodburn,  James  A.,   The  American   Republic  and  its   Government 

(1908),  ch.  IV. 

References  for  Teachers 

1.  The  Senate:  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics 
(1910),  ch.  XII  ;  Fairlie,  J.  A.,  National  Administration  of  the  United 
States  (1905),  ch.  iii ;  Ford,  H.  J.,  The  Rise  and  Growth  of  American 
Politics  (1898),  ch.  xxi  ;  Reinsch,  P.  S.,  American  Legislatures  and 
Legislative  Methods  (1907),  chs.  i,  iii  ;  Wilson,  Woodrow,  Constitu- 
tional Government  in  the  United  States  (1908),  ch.  v. 


APPENDIX  xxix 

2.  The  House  of  Representatives :  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Govern- 
ment  and  Politics  (1910),  ch.  xii  ;  Fairlie,  John,  National  Administra- 
tion of  the  United  States  (1905),  ch.  iii ;  FoUett,  M.  P.,  The  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  (1904)  ;  Ford,  H.  J.,  The  Rise  and 
Growth  of  American  Politics  (1898),  ch.  xx  ;  Reinsch,  P.  S.,  American 
Legislatures  and  Legislative  Methods  (1907),  chs.  i-ii ;  Wilson,  Wood- 
row,  Constitutional  Government  in  the  United  States  (1908),  ch.  IV. 

3.  Congressional  Methods:  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and 
Politics  (1910),  chs.  xii-xiv;  Fuller,  H.  B.,  Speakers  of  the  House 
(1909)  ;  Hart,  A.  B.,  Practical  Essays  on  American  Government 
(1905),  nos.  I,  IX  ;  Kaye,  P.  L.,  Readings  in  Civil  Government  (1910), 
pp.  129-148  ;  Lodge,  H.  C,  Historical  and  Political  Essays  (1898), 
pp.  169-197  ;  Lowell,  A.  L.,  Essays  on  Government  (1889),  no.  i ; 
Moore,  J.  W.,  The  American  Congress  (1895),  ch.  xxxiv  ;  Woodburn, 
James  A.,  The  American  Republic  and  its  Govemmeni  (1908),  pp.  257- 
315. 

Chapter  XV.  The  President  and  his  Cabinet 

References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  ch.  xv. 

Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1907),  I,  chs.  v,  VI. 

Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  ch.  xix. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

chs.  xxv-xxvii. 
Harrison,  Benjamin,  This  Country  of  Ours  (1903),  chs.  rv-X. 

References  for  Teachers 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  ch.  X. 
Fairlie,  J.  A.,  National  Administration  of  the  United  States  (1905). 
Fin  ley,   John   H.,    The  American   Executive   and  Executive  Methods 

(1908),  ch.  XVI. 
Ford,  H.  J.,  The  Rise  and  Growth  of  American  Politics  (1898),  pp. 

383-396. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  ch.  xv. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Practical  Essays  on  American  Government  (1905),  no.  m. 
Kaye,  P.  L.,  Readings  in  Civil  Government   (1910),  pp.  184-196. 
Schouler,  James,  Constitutional  Studies  (1904),  pp.  156-168. 
Various   Authors,   History-Making ;    The  Story   of   a    Great  Nation 

(1910). 
Wilson,    Woodrow,    Constitutional   Government  in  the    United  States 

(1908),  ch.  Ill 


XXX  APPENDIX 

Wilson,  Woodrow,   The  State  (1906),  sees.  1324-1333. 
Woodburn,   James  A.,    The  American  Republic  and  its   Government 
(1908),  pp.  94-194. 

Chapter  XVI.  The  Federal  Courts 
References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  cb.  xvi. 

Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1907),  i,  chs.  xxii-xxiv. 

Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  cbs.  xx,  xxi. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

cb.  XXVIII. 
Harrison,  Benjamin,  This  Country  of  Ours  (1903),  cbs.  xx,  xxi. 

References  for  Teachers 

Baldwin,  S.  E.,  The  American  Judiciary  (1905). 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  ch.  xv. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  cb.  xvii. 

Landon,    J.    S.,     The   Constitutional  History  and  Government  of  the 

United  States  (1905),  chs.  xiii-xiv. 
Schouler,  James,  Constitutional  Studies  (1904),  pp.  169-177. 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  Constitutional  Government  of  the  United  States  (1908), 

cb.  VI. 
Woodburn,  J.  A.,  The  American  Republic  and  its  Government  (1908), 

cb.  VI. 

Chapter  XVII.  Commerce  and  Money 

References  for  Pupils 
Blackmar,  F.  W.,  Economics  for  High  Schools   (1907),  cbs.  xxvm- 

XXIX,  XXXI. 

Bryce,  James,   The  American  Commonwealth  (1907),  ii,  cb.  cm. 
Guitteau,  W.  B,,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

cbs.  XXX,  XXXI. 
James,  J.  A.,  nnd  Sanford,  A.  H.,  Government  in  State  and  Nation 

(1903),  cb.  XIX. 
Wright,  Carroll  D.,    Outline  of  Practical  Sociology  (1899),  cb.   vii^ 

xxrv. 

References  for  Teachers 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  ch.  xix. 
Bullock,  C.  J.,  The  Monetary  History  of  the  United  States  (1900),  pp, 
79-121. 


APPENDIX 


xxn 


Dewey,  D.  R.,  Financial  History  of  the  United  States  (1903). 
Dunbar,  C.  F.,  Theory  and  History  of  Banking  (1893),  ch.  ix. 
Johnson,  E.  R.,  Elements  of  Transportation  (1909),  chs.  xvi-xvni, 

xxvn,  XXXV,  XXXIX. 
Latan^,  J.  H.,  America  as  a  World  Power  (1907),  ch.  xvii. 
Taussig,  F.  W.,  The  Tariff  Histcn-y  of  the  United  States  (1905). 
Watson,  D.  K.,   History  of  American  Coinage  (1899). 
White,  H.,  Money  and  Banking  (1896). 

Chapteb  XVIII.  Tereitories  and  Public  Lands 

References  for  Pupils 

Ashley,  R.  L.,  Government  and  the  Citizen  (1911),  chs.  xix,  xx. 

Forman,  S.  E.,  Advanced  Civics  (1905),  chs.  ix,  xxv. 

Guitteau,  W.  B.,  Government  and  Politics  in  the  United  States  (1911), 

ch.  xxxiii. 
Hart,  A.  B.,  Actual  Government  (1903),  chs.  xvni-xx. 
Woodburn,  J.  A.,  The  American  Republic  (1908),  ch.  vni. 

References  for  Teachers 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  (1910),  ch.  xxi. 
Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1907),  i,  ch.  XLvn. 
Carpenter,  E.  J.,  The  American  Advance  (1903). 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  The  Old  Northwest  (1888),  chs.  x,  xiv. 
Morris,  Charles,  Our  Island  Empire  (1899). 
Reinsch,  P.  S.,  Colonial  Government  (1902),  part  vii. 
Rowe,  L.  S.,  The  United  States  and  Porto  Rico  (1904). 
Willoughby,  W.  F.,  Territories  and  Dependencies  of  the  United  States 
(1905). 

Chapter  XIX.     Our  National  Ideals 

References  for  Pupils 

Eliot,  Charles  W.,  American  Contributions  to  Civilization  (1897). 

Hart,  A.  B.,  National  Ideals  Historically  Traced  (1907). 

Reinsch,  Paul  S.,  The  Young  Citizen*s  Reader  (1909),  chs.  xxi-xxxv 


INDEX 


(Referencts  are  to  pages) 


Accidents,  prevention  of,  in  factories, 
84. 

Accused  persons,  protection  of  the 
rights  of,  130,  131. 

Adjournment,  of  State  legislature,  126; 
of  Congress,  169. 

Administrative  departments,  city,  109- 
110 ;  State,  126-127;  national,  189-191. 

Admission  of  States,  119,  222. 

Agriculture,  government  aid  of,  77-79 ; 
scientific  methods  in,  77-78 ;  experi- 
ment stations,  78 ;  agricultural  exten- 
sion work,  78-79 ;  federal  department 
of,  190. 

Alaska,  218,  223. 

Aliens,  23,  note  1;  admission  to  citizen- 
ship, 14. 

Alloy,  209. 

Almshouses,  72. 

Ambassadors,  187. 

Amendment  process,  under  State  con- 
stitutions, 120 ;  under  federal  consti- 
tution, 159 ;  analysis  of  federal  amend- 
ments, 158-159. 

American  Revolution,  117, 137. 

Anarchists,  41,  45. 

Annexations,  territorial,  217-219. 

Anti-Federalists,  31. 

Anti-Trust  Act  of  1890,  208-209. 

Appeals,  in  criminal  cases,  130;  in  fed- 
eral courts,  195, 196 ;  circuit  court  of 
appeals,  195, 196. 

Appointment  to  office,  municipal,  108- 
112;  State,  127;  federal,  165-166,  185- 
187. 

Apportionment,  for  State  legislatures, 
121 ;  for  United  States  Representa- 
tives, 166. 

Appropriations,  municipal,  105-106,  111; 
State,  123 ;  federal,  167, 174. 

Arbitration,  State  boards  of,  85;  inter- 
national, 236-237. 

Arizona,  219. 

Army,  United  States,  44, 184. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  45. 

Arrest,  warrants  for,  129. 

Articles  of  Confederation,  the,  8;  de- 
fects of,  153;  contrast  with  federal 
constitution,  153. 

Assemblies,  colonial,  117. 

Assessments,  special,  146. 


Assessor,  town,  94  ;  city,  141. 
Attorney,  county  prosecuting,  96;  fed- 

eral  district,  198-199. 
Attorney-General,  State,  127;  federal, 

190. 
Auditor,  county,  95 ;  State,  126. 
Australian  ballot,  26-27. 

Bail,  130. 

Balances,  checks  and,  121. 

Ballot,  Australian,  2&-27, 179. 

Banks,  control  of,  87-88 ;  national  banks, 
17,  211 ;  postal  savings  banks,  17,  214. 

Bill  of  Rights,  State,  119-120;  federal, 
158. 

Bills,  introduction  of,  in  State  legisla- 
ture, 122;  in  Congress,  170-171.  See 
Legislation. 

Blind  and  deaf,  care  of  the,  71. 

Boards,  municipal,  109-110;  county,  95 ; 
State,  127.  Boards  of  education,  63-64 ; 
110. 

Bonds.  See  Borrowing  power. 

Borrowing  power,  municipal,  106,  149; 
State  and  national,  149-150. 

"  Boss,"  party,  38. 

Bribery,  prevention  of,  in  elections,  27. 

Bridges,  construction  of,  76,  95. 

Briefs,  legal,  194,  and  note  2. 

Bryce,  James,  criticism  of  our  city  gov- 
ernments, 54. 

Building  regulations,  47. 

Buildings,  national,  227. 

Bureau  of  Education,  federal,  68, 190. 

Burns,  Robert,  quotation  from,  232. 

Business  taxes,  144. 

Cabinet,  the,  189-191. 

Calendar,  legislative,  170-171. 

Canals,  83;  Panama  Canal,  203,  219,  223. 

Candidates.  See  Nominations. 

Capital,  importance  of,  in  production, 
85-87. 

Capital,  the  national.  See  "Washington, 
D.  C. 

Capitation  tax,  144-145. 

Capitol,  the,  at  Washington,  D.  C,  163, 
181, 182. 

Caucus,  party,  34,  173-174.  See  Prima- 
ries. 

Census,  166, 191. 


INDEX 


Certificates,  gold,  211;  silver  oertifi- 
cates,211. 

"  Charge  "  of  judge  to  jury,  129, 130. 

Charities,  public,  16, 70 ;  methods  of  poor 
relief,  72-73;  dealing  with  vagrants, 
72 ;  care  of  defective  classes,  71 ;  char- 
ity organizations,  74 ;  cost  of  charities, 
73. 

Charter,  municipal,  103;  charter  colo- 
nies, 117. 

Checks  and  balances,  121. 

Child  labor,  84,  235. 

Children,  care  of  dependent,  73. 

Chinese,  exclusion  of,  205. 

Circuit  court  of  appeals,  federal,  195, 
196. 

Citizens,  rights  of,  14-18;  duties  of,  18- 
21. 

Citizenship,  definition  of,  13 ;  admission 
to,  14. 

City,  historical  importance  of,  99 ;  in- 
dividuality of,  99-100;  growth  of,  in 
United  States,  100;  municipal  pro- 
blems, 101-103  ;  incorporation  of,  103 ; 
control  of,  by  State  governments,  103 ; 
home  rule  for,  103 ;  commission  gov- 
ernment for,  110-111 ;  civil  service  in, 
111-112;  franchises,  106-107;  council, 
104-107;  mayor,  107-108  ;  administra- 
tive officials,  109-110;  elections,  113; 
library  and  park  boards,  110 ;  police, 
fire,  and  health  departments,  110; 
street  and  building  departments,  110 ; 
work  of  city  governments,  113-114. 

Civil  actions,  procedure  in,  12&-129. 

Civil  service,  municipal,  111-112;  fed- 
eral, 186-187,  213. 

Civil  War,  19,  148, 149,  153,  204,  222,  237. 

Claims,  court  of,  199. 

Clerk,  county,  95  ;  township,  94. 

Coasts,  protection  of,  17,  202. 

Coinage,  209-210. 

Colleges.  See  Universities. 

Collinwood  school  fire,  the,  47,  note  2. 

Colonies,  the  North  American,  govern- 
ment of,  7;  relations  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, 117,137. 

Columbia,  District  of,  acquisition  and 
government,  223. 

Commander-in-chief,  power  of  Presi- 
dent as,  184,  190. 

Commerce,  aids  to,  17 ;  under  Articles 
of  Confederation,  153-154 ;  compro- 
mise over,  in  constitutional  conven- 
tion, 156;  definition  of,  201 ;  navigation, 
202 ;  river  and  harbor  improvements, 
202-203  ;  tariff  duties,  146-147,  203-204; 
immigration,  205-207 ;  railway  trans- 
portation, 88, 207-208 ;  Interstate  Com- 
merce Act,  208;  Anti-Trost  Act,  208- 


209;  money  and  coinage,  209-212;  pos- 
tal service,  17,  212-214. 

Commerce,  Department  of,  19<>-191. 

Commission  government,  in  cities,  11&- 
111. 

Commissioner  of  Education,  federal,  68. 

Commissioners,  county,  96, 148;  United 
States,  199. 

Committee  system,  in  city  councils,  104r- 
105;  in  State  legislatures,  122;  in  Con- 
gress, 170-171 ;  conference  committees, 
172. 

Committees,  party,  37. 

Commons,  House  of,  167. 

Compromise  type  of  local  government, 
93,  95-96. 

Compromises  of  the  constitution,  165- 
156. 

Comptroller,  State,  126. 

Compulsory  education,  66,  235. 

Confederation,  Articles  of,  8  ;  defects 
of,  153;  contrast  with  federal  consti- 
tution, 153. 

Conference  committees,  172. 

Congress,  the  Second  Continental,  152. 

Congress,  United  States,  home  of,  163- 
164;  term  and  sessions,  168-169;  pre- 
siding officers,  169 ;  process  of  legisla- 
tion, 170-173;  committee  system,  170; 
debate  in  Congress,  171 ;  relations  with 
the  President,  172-173;  powers  of,  174. 
See  Senate,  House  of  Representa- 
tives. 

Congressmen.  <S'ee  House  of  Represent- 
atives. 

Connecticut  Compromise,  the,  156. 

Conservation  of  natural  resources,  18, 
76,  79-81,  226-227. 

Constables,  43,  94,  96. 

Constitution,  federal,  call  of  convention 
to  frame,  154;  the  framing  of,  155; 
compromises  of,  155-157;  ratification 
of,  157-158 ;  method  of  amending,  159  ; 
analysis  of  amendments  to,  158-159; 
federal  system  under,  159-160 ;  powers 
of  national  government  under,  161; 
powers  of  State  government  under, 
161.   See  National  government. 

Constitutions,  State,  formation  of,  118 ; 
authority  of,  119;  parts  of,  119-120; 
bill  of  rights,  119;  amendment  of  con- 
stitutions, 120;  interpretation  of,  132. 

Constitutional  Convention.  See  Con- 
vention of  1787. 

Constitutionality  of  legislation,  power 
of  State  courts  to  decide,  132 ;  power 
of  federal  courts,  196-198. 

Consuls,  76,187. 

Continental  Congress,  the  Second,  152. 

Contracts,  public,  137.  See  Franchises. 


INDEX 


Convention  of  1787, 154-157. 

Conventions,  party,  32;  State,  34-35; 
national,  177-178. 

Conventions,  State  constitutional,  118- 
119. 

Copyright,  18,  76. 

Coroner,  95. 

Corporations,  characteristics  and  devel- 
opment of,  85-86  ;  organization  and 
control  of,  76, 84,  86-87  ;  banks,  87 ;  in- 
surance companies,  88;  railroads,  88, 
207-208 ;  trusts  and  industrial  combi- 
nations, 87,  208-209;  taxation  of  cor- 
porations, 144. 

Corrupt  practices  acts,  27. 

Council,  city,  composition  of,  104  ;  elec- 
tion and  term  of  members,  104;  pro- 
cedure in,  104-10o;  financial  powers 
of,  105-107;  power  to  grant  franchises, 
106-107. 

Council,  of  school  city,  1. 

County  courts,  131. 

County,  development  of,  at  the  South, 
7,  92-93;  county  court,  7;  present 
county  government,  94-95;  county 
commissioners  or  supervisors,  95; 
county  officers,  95. 

Court,  definition  of,  128;  law-enforce- 
ment, 44-45.    See  Judiciary. 

Crime,  definition  of,  128  ;  criminal  pro- 
cedure, 129-130. 

Currency.    See  Money. 

Customs  duties.    See  Tariff  duties. 

Dairying,  78,  79. 

"  Dark  Horse,"  a,  178. 

Dead  Letter  Office,  214. 

Deaf,  care  of  the,  71. 

Debate,  in  Congress,  171. 

Debt,  State  and  local,  149;  national, 
149-150. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  the,  8, 152. 

Defective  classes,  care  of,  71. 

Defendant,  in  civil  cases,  128 ;  in  crim- 
inal cases,  129-130. 

Delegates,  territorial,  222. 

Delinquent  classes,  treatment  of,  45-46. 

Delinquent  taxes,  143. 

Democracy,  6;  spirit  of,  as  a  national 
ideal,  232-233. 

Departments,  federal  executive,  189- 
191;  State  administrative  depart- 
ments, 126-127 ;  city  administrative 
departments,  109-110. 

Dependencies.  See  Territories. 

Diplomatic  powers,  of  President,  187- 
188. 

Diplomatic  representatives.  See  Am- 
bassadors. 

Direct  legislation,  30,  124. 


Direct  nominations.  See  Nominations. 

Direct  taxes,  140. 

Disease,  suppression  of.  See  Health. 

Dispensaries,  public,  73. 

District  attorney,  federal,  198-199. 

District  Court,  United  States.  See  Ju- 
diciary, federal. 

District  of  Columbia,  acquisition  and 
government  of,  223. 

Districts,  school,  61-63. 

Districts,  State  legislative,  121;  con- 
gressional, 166. 

Domain,  public,  226-227. 

Draft,  or  compulsory  military  sei"vicc, 
19,  184. 

Dred  Scott  Case,  the,  198. 

Duties,  excise,  147-148. 

Duties,  tariff.  See  Tariff  duties. 

Economic  functions  of  government, 
75-«8. 

Education,  maintenance  of ,  16;  import- 
ance of,  57-58,  101 ;  purposes  of,  58- 
61 ;  State  and  local  systems,  61-67; 
district  school  systems,  61-63 ;  educa- 
tion in  cities,  63-65,  113;  boards  of 
education,  63-64, 101;  compulsory  ed- 
ucation laws,  66,  235 ;  federal  aid  to 
education,  67-68  ;  ideal  of  free  public 
education,  233-234. 

Educational  test  for  immigrants,  206 ; 
for  voters,  23. 

Elections,  time  of  holding,  24;  qualifi- 
cations for  voting,  23 ;  process  of  elec- 
tion, 24-26;  Australian  ballot,  26-, 
election  safeguards,  26-27  ;  city  elec- 
tions, 113;  presidential  election,  177, 
note  1. 

Electors,  presidential,  179-181. 

Eleventh  Amendment,  159. 

Employees,  protection  of,  76,  84-85, 235; 
relations  with  employers,  84,  85,  235. 

England,  local  government  in,  43,  93. 

Engraving  and  Printing,  Bureau  of, 
211-212. 

Entry,  ports  of,  202,  note  1. 

Envoys.  See  Ambassadors. 

Epidemics,  prevention  of.  See  Health, 
public. 

Equalization,  boards  of,  141-142. 

Erie  Canal,  the,  83. 

Evidence,  the  taking  of,  128-129. 

Excise  taxes,  147-148. 

Executive  departments,  federal,  188- 
191 ;  State,  126-127  ;  city,  109-110. 

Executive,  city.  See  Mayor. 

Executive,  federal.  See  President. 

Executive,  State,  election  and  term  of, 
124;  qualifications  and  salary,  124; 
powers  of,  124-126. 


INDEX 


Executive  sessions,  of  Senate,  166. 

Expenditures,  public,  importance  of 
honesty  and  economy  in,  136-137;  ob- 
jects of  national,  State,  and  local  ex- 
penditures, 139-140. 

Experiment  stations,  agricultural,  78. 

Extradition,  160. 

Factory  laws,  76,  84-85,  235. 

Farming.  See  Agriculture. 

Federal  government.  /See  National  gov- 
ernment. 

Federalists,  the,  31, 157. 

Felony,  46. 

Fifteenth  amendment,  159. 

Finance.  See  Expenditures,  public; 
Taxes ;  Borrowing  power. 

Fire,  protection  from,  46-47, 113. 

Florida,  purchase  of,  218. 

Foods,  inspection  of,  49-50. 

Foreign  affairs,  187-188. 

Forests,  protection  of,  18,  79-81 ;  forest 
reserves,  227. 

Forts  and  arsenals,  national,  227. 

Fourteenth  amendment,  159. 

Franchise,  the  elective.  See  Suffrage. 

Franchises,  city,  51-52,  106-107. 

Functions  of  government.  See  Govern- 
ment. 

Gadsden  Purchase,  218. 

General  property  tax,  140-144. 

Geneva  arbitration,  the,  236. 

Gerrymander,  the,  166-167. 

Gold,  coinage  of,  209-210  ;  gold  certifi- 
cates, 211. 

Government,  origin  of,  4-5  ;  control  of, 
B-6;  division  of  powers  between  na- 
tional and  State,  8,  161 ;  services  of, 
14-18  ;  duties  of  citizens  toward,  18- 
21 ;  representative,  22, 42 ;  rural,  90-96 ; 
municipal,  99-114  ;  State,  117-133  ;  fed- 
eral, 152-228.  See  States;  Local  gov- 
ernment ;  Nation  and  States,  relation 
of;  National  government. 

Governor,    ^ee  Executive,  State. 

Grand  jury,  the.    See  Jury. 

Great  Britain,  relations  with  North 
American  colonies,  7-8. 

Greek  ideal  of  physical  well-being,  48. 

Greenbacks,  210. 

Guam,  218. 

Hague  Court,  The,  236,  237. 
Hamilton,  Alexander,  154. 
Harbors,  improvement  of  rivers  and, 

76,  202-203. 
Hawaii,  218,  224. 
Health,  public,  protection  of,  16,  48-51, 

101 ;  wity  health  departments,  49,  110, 


113 ;  health  services  of  State  and  na- 
tional governments,  50. 

High  schools,  64-65. 

Highways,  improvement  of,  76,  81-82  ; 
officers  in  charge  of,  94,  95. 

Holy  Alliance,  The,  231,  note  1. 

Home  rule,  municipal,  103. 

Homestead  Act,  226. 

Hospitals,  71,  73. 

House  of  Representatives,  apportion- 
ment of  members,  166 ;  the  gerryman- 
der, 166-167  ;  term  and  qualifications 
of  members,  167;  privileges  and  disa- 
bilities of  members,  167;  the  Speaker, 
169-170;  committees,  170;  debate,  171; 
special  powers  of  the  House,  167, 168. 
See  Congress,  United  States. 

House  of  Representatives  (in  State  gov- 
ernments). See  Legislature,  State. 

Humanity,  ideal  of,  234-236. 

Ideals,  our  national,  229-238. 

Illiteracy,  23,  206. 

Immigration,  inspection  of,  50,  205 
classes  excluded,  205 ;  general  charac- 
teristics of  immigration,  205-207  ;  il 
literacy  among  immigrants,  206;  con. 
centration  of  immigrants  in  cities, 
101,  207. 

Impeachment,  federal  power  of,  168. 

Import  duties,  146-147.  See  Tariff  da- 
ties. 

Inauguration,  presidential,  181-182. 

Income  tax,  148,  198. 

Incorporation,  of  cities,  103 ;  of  business 
corporations,  86. 

Independence,  Declaration  of,  8, 152. 

Independent  voting,  28,  54. 

Indian  reservations,  227. 

Indictment,  45,  130. 

Individual,  responsibility  of  the,  55.  See 
Citizens,  duties  of. 

Individual  rights,  protection  of»  119, 
158. 

Indoor  relief,  72. 

Industry,  government  and,  75-88, 

Inferior  courts,  131. 

Inheritance  tax,  145. 

Initiative,  29-30. 

Insane,  care  of  the,  71. 

Insular  territories,  224-225. 

Insurance  companies,  regulation  of^ 
88. 

Interior,  Secretary  of  the,  190. 

Internal  improvements,  81-83,  202-203. 

Internal  revenue  duties,  147-148. 

International  peace,  236-237. 

Interpretation,  constitutional.  See  Con- 
stitutionality of  legislation. 

Interstate  Commerce  Act,  208. 


INDEX 


Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  88, 

208. 
Interstate  relations,  160. 
Intervention,  federal,  44,  185. 
Inventions,  patents  on,  17-18. 
Iroquois  theatre  fire,  47,  note  2. 
Irrigation,  18,  79, 226. 
Isthmian  Canal.    See  Panama  Canal. 

Jail,  44,  130. 

Japanese  laborers,  exclusion  of,  205. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  impeachment  of,  168, 
note  1. 

Journal,  Congressional,  171. 

Judges,  State,  132-133;  federal,  194- 
195, 198. 

Judiciary,  federal,  sessions  of  Supreme 
Court,  193-194 ;  procedure  in,  194- 
195;  power  of  Supreme  Court,  195-197; 
three  grades  of  federal  courts,  195- 
196 ;  cases  tried  in,  196 ;  power  to  de- 
cide constitutionality  of  legislation, 
196-197;  federal  judges,  194-195,  198; 
other  judicial  officers,  198-199;  the 
Court  of  Claims,  199. 

Judiciary,  State :  functions  of,  128 ;  pro- 
cedure in  civil  cases,  128-129  ;  proce- 
dure in  criminal  cases,  129-131 ;  sys- 
tem of  State  courts,  131-132;  p'^wer 
to  decide  upon  constitutionality  of 
legislation,132 ;  judges  of  State  courts, 
132-133. 

Jury,  petit,  20,  45,  130-131;  the  grand 
jury,  129-130. 

Justice,  Department  of,  190. 

Justice  of  the  peace,  96,  131. 

Juvenile  court,  46. 

Labor,  State  legislation  concerning,  76, 
84-85,  285;  arbitration  of  labor  dis- 
putes, 84-85 ;  Department  of,  190-191. 

Land,  taxes  on,  140-144. 

Lands,  public,  226-227 ;  the  federal  gov- 
ernment, as  landlord,  227 ;  land  grants 
in  aid  of  education,  168;  the  Home- 
stead Act,  22G;  forest  reserves,  79-81, 
227;  Indian  reservations,  227. 

Large  scale  production.  See  Produc- 
tion. 

Law,  necessity  of,  41-42 ;  why  all  should 
obey  the  law,  42. 

Lawlessness,  suppression  of.  See  Order, 
maintenance  of. 

Lawmaking.  See  Legislation,  process  of. 

Legal  tender,  209,  and  note  1. 

Legislation,  process  of,  in  city  coun- 
cils, 104-105;  in  State  legislatures,  122- 
123;  in  Congress,  170-173. 

i^egislature,  federal.  See  Congress. 

Legislature,  municipal.  See  Council. 


Legislature,  State,  composition  of,  120}, 
election  and  qualifications  of  mem-- 
bers,  121 ;  term  and  salary  of  members, 
121 ;  sessions  of  legislature,  122 ;  pro- 
cess of  legislation,  122-123;  unconstitu- 
tional legislation,  132;  committees  of 
legislature,  122;  governor's  veto,  123; 
powers  of  legislature,  123-124 ;  election 
of  United  States  Senators,  164. 

Libraries,  public,  16,  65-66, 113. 

License  taxes,  144. 

Lieutenant-Governor,  126. 

Lighting,  public,  in  cities,  51-52. 

Liquor  traffic,  regulation  of,  53,  76. 

Loans.    See  Borrowing  power. 

Local  government,  origin  of,  in  New' 
England,  G,  91-92;  at  the  South,  7,  92- 
93 ;  functions  of,  10-11 ;  classification 
of  local  governments,  90;  rural  local 
governments,  90;  development  of 
local  government,  in  Middle  States, 
93;  present  system  of,  in  New  Eng- 
land, 93-94;  in  the  South  and  "West, 
94-95;  township-county  system  of, 
95-96.  See  City. 

Local  option,  29,  53. 

Louisiana  Purchase,  the,  193,  217. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  quotation  from, 
236. 

Lynching,  44-45. 

Macadamizing  roads,  81-82. 

Machine,  the  party,  38-39. 

Madison,  James,  154. 

Magna  Charta,  137,  note  1. 

Mail  matter.  See  Postal  service. 

Manual  training,  65. 

Marbury  v.  Madison,  197. 

Marshall,  Chief  Justice,  197. 

Marshal,  federal,  199. 

Mayor,  election,  term,  and  salary,  107-' 
108;  power  over  the  city's  administra- 
tion, 108;  "the  responsible  mayor," 
108;  power  to  secure  the  peace,  108; 
veto  power,  108. 

Medical  inspection  of  school  children, 
48. 

Merit  system.  See  Civil  service. 

Message,  governor's,  125;  President's, 
188. 

Mexican  cessions,  the,  218. 

Middle  Ages,  position  of  cities  during 
the,  99. 

Middle  States,  development  of  local 
government  in,  93. 

Military  Academy,  United  States,  68. 

Military  powers,  of  the  sheriff,  43-44, 
95;  of  the  mayor,  108;  of  the  governor, 
15 ;  of  the  president,  15,  184-185. 

Military  service,  duty  of,  Id. 


INDEX 


Militia,  the,  15,  44, 184, 185. 

Ministers,  foreign,  187. 

Mints,  federal,  209. 

Misdemeanors,  129. 

Money,  provision  for  a  circulating  med- 
ium, 76 ;  kinds  and  material,  209 ;  legal 
tender,  209,  and  note  1;  process  of 
coinage,  209-210  ;  paper  money,  210- 
212. 

Money  orders,  213. 

Monopolies,  municipal,  106,  note  1 ;  145 ; 
capitalistic,  87;  federal  control  of, 
208-209. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  193,  231. 

"  Moonshiners,"  147. 

Municipal  courts,  131. 

Municipality.  See  City. 

Nation  and  States,  relation  of,  8-9, 159- 
162,  222. 

National  bank  notes,  211. 

National  government,  origin,  three  de- 
partments of,  9;  economic  services 
of,  76-77,  79-80;  powers  of,  161,  174; 
prohibitions  on,  161.  See  Congress, 
President,  Judiciary,  Government 
(federal),  Executive  departments. 

National  guard.  See  Militia. 

Natural  resources,  conservation  of,  18, 
76,  79-81,  226-227. 

Naturalization,  14. 

Naval  Academy,  United  States,  68. 

Naval  yards  and  stations,  227. 

Navigation,  202. 

Navy,  Secretary  of  the,  190. 

New  England,  town  government  of. 
See  Towns. 

New  Mexico,  219. 

New  York  City,  11,  43,  note  1 ;  100, 101. 

Nominations,  for  State  office,  35;  by 
petition,  36-37 ;  direct  nominations,  35- 
36 ;  national  nominating  conventions, 
177-178. 

Northwest  territory,  government  of  the, 
220-221. 

Notes,  United  States  (greenbacks),  210  ; 
national  bank  notes,  211;  gold  and 
silver  certificates,  211. 

Oath  of  office,  presidential,  182. 

Obligations,  of  the  States  toward  the 
Union,  160,  222  ;  of  the  Union  toward 
the  States,  160. 

Occupations,  regulation  of,  53. 

Offenders,  prosecution  of,  45-46. 

Office-holding,  duty  of,  21. 

Officers,  State:  elective,  126-127;  ap- 
pointive, 127 ;  federal  appointive,  185- 
187. 

Opportunity,  equality  of,  233. 


Order,  maintenance  of,  14-15,  184-186, 
Ordinance  of  1787,  220-221. 
Ordinances,  municipal,  105, 108. 
Oregon  territory,  the,  217-218. 
Organized  territories.  See  Territories. 
Out-door  relief,  73. 
Overseers  of  the  poor,  73,  94. 

Panama  Canal,  203,  219,  223. 

Paper  money.  See  Notes. 

Parcel  post,  establishment  of,  173,  214. 

Pardons,  governor's  power  over,  126; 
President's  power  over,  188. 

Parks,  city,  52-53,  113 ;  national,  227. 

Parties,  political,  origin  of,  31 ;  func- 
tions of,  31-32;  organization  of,  32; 
party  primaries,  32-34 ;  party  con- 
ventions, 34-35 ;  national  nominating 
conventions  and  campaigns,  177-179; 
party  committees  and  machinery,  37- 
38;  party  responsibility,  38-39;  the 
party  caucus,  173-174;  influence  of 
parties  on  legislation,  173. 

Patents,  17,  76,  190. 

Patriotism,  how  shown,  18-21, 42,  55, 114, 
231,  233,  237 ;  as  a  national  ideal,  238. 

Paving,  in  cities,  16,  82. 

Peace  and  order,  maintenance  of,  41-45- 

Pe:.je,  ideal  of  international,  236-237. 

Penitentiary,  46. 

Pensions,  military,  139. 

Personal  property  tax,  141, 144. 

Petition,  nomination  by,  36-37. 

Philadelphia,  100,  101,  154. 

Philippine  Islands,  218,  225,  231. 

Plaintiff,  in  civil  cases,  128. 

Platform,  party,  35. 

Playgrounds,  city,  52, 113. 

Police,  the,  42,  43, 113;  police  courts  in 
cities,  131. 

Politics.    See  Parties,  political. 

Poll  tax,  144-145. 

Poor,  overseers  of,  73, 94 ;  poor  relief,  in 
cities,  72-74,  114. 

Popular  election  of  Senators,  164-165. 

Porto  Rico,  218,  224. 

Ports  of  entry,  202,  note  1. 

Posse  comitatus,  44. 

Postal  savings  banks,  17,  214. 

Postal  service,  17,  212-214.  See  Parcel 
post.  Postal  savings  banks.  Money 
orders.  Registered  mail,  Rural  free 
delivery. 

Postmaster-General,  190. 

Powers,  of  federal  and  State  govern- 
ment.   See  Government. 

President,  nomination  of ,  177-178;  pre- 
sidential campaign,  179;  election  of, 
179-180  ;electionby  the  Houseof  Repre- 
sentatives, 181;  inaugural  ceremony. 


INDEX 


181-182  ;  term,  salary,  and  qualifica- 
tions, 182-183  ;  military  powers,  184- 
185;  powers  of  appointment  and  re- 
moval, 185-187;  diplomatic  powers, 
187-188;  legislative  powers,  188;  power 
over  pardons,  188-189;  the  presidential 
succession,  183 ;  the  President's  Cabi- 
net, 189;  the  executive  departments, 
188-191. 

Press,  freedom  of  the,  120, 158. 

Primaries,  party,  32-34;  direct  primary 
system,  35-36. 

Prisons,  45-46. 

Privileges  of  States  in  the  Union,  160. 

Procedure,  civil,  128-129 ;  criminal,  129- 
130. 

Procedure,  in  city  councils,  104-105 ;  in 
State  legislatures,  122-123;  in  Con- 
gress, 170-172. 

Production,  factors  in,  83;  large  scale 
production,  83-84,  100. 

Prohibition  laws,  53. 

Prohibitions  upon  State  governments, 
161-102 ;  upon  the  federal  government, 
161. 

Property,  protection  of,  4,  41. 

Prosecution  of  criminals,  129-130. 

Prosecutor,  county,  95. 

Protection,  policy  of,  204.  See  Tariff 
duties. 

Public  domain,  220-227. 

Public  utilities  commission,  127-128. 

Pure  food  law,  50. 

Qualifications,  for  suffrage,  23, 121. 
Quarantine,  50. 

Railroads,  State  regulation  of,  88,  127; 
federal  regulation  of,  207-208. 

Railways,  street,  102,  106,  note  1 ;  114. 

Ratification,  of  the  federal  constitution, 
157-158. 

Real  estate,  tax  on,  140-144. 

Reclamation  service,  18,  79,  226. 

Recorder,  county,  95. 

Referendum,  29-30,  52. 

Reformatories,  46. 

Registered  mail,  213. 

Registration  of  voters,  25. 

Religion,  freedom  of,  120, 158. 

Removal  power,  of  mayor,  108;  of  gov- 
ernor, 125 ;  of  President,  187. 

Representative  government,  22,  42. 

Representatives,  House  of.  See  House 
of  Representatives. 

Reprieve,  189. 

Reservations,  Indian,  227. 

Reserves,  forests,  80-81,  227. 

Resources,  natural.  See  Conservation. 

Responsibility,  official,  of  the  mayor. 


108;  of  the  governor,  124-126;  of  the 
President,  177, 184-188. 

Revenue  and  protective  tariffs,  203-204. 

Revenue  bills,  in  State  legislatures,  120, 
note  1 ;  in  Congress,  167. 

Revenues.  See  Taxes. 

Revolution,  the  American,  117, 137. 

Rights,  protection  of  individual,  119- 
120,  158. 

Riots,  suppression  of.  See  Order,  main- 
tenance of. 

River  and  harbor  improvements,  76, 
202-203. 

Roads,  construction  and  maintenance 
of,  76,  81-82 ;  officers  in  charge  of,  94, 
95.  See  Streets. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  34,  39,  80, 183. 

Rules,  of  the  United  States  House  of 
Representatives,  169-171;  of  the  Sen- 
ate, 171. 

Rural  free  delivery,  214. 

Rural  population,  77,  100,  note  2.  See 
Agriculture. 

Safety,  public,  preservation  of  the,  14- 
15, 184-185. 

Salaries.  See  the  several  offices. 

Samoa,  219,  224. 

Sanitary  officers,  49. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie  Ship  Canal,  83,  note\\ 
203. 

Savings  banks,  postal,  17,  214. 

School  city,  organization  and  govern- 
ment of,  1-2 ;  ideal  of  self-control,  3. 

Schools,  public.  See  Education. 

Secretaries,  federal.  See  the  federal  de- 
partments (State,  War,  Navy,  etc.). 

Selectmen,  town,  94. 

Self-reliance,  a  national  ideal,  229-232. 

Senate,  State,  120-121.  See  Legislature, 
State. 

Senate,  the  United  States,  composition 
of,  164 ;  election  of  Senators,  104  ;  term 
and  qualifications  of  Senators,  165; 
powers  of  the  Senate,  165-166  ;  debate 
in,  171 ;  presiding  officer  of,  169 ;  com- 
mittees of,  170;  Senatorial  ''cour- 
tesy," 18G,  and  note  1.  See  Congress. 

Services  of  government,  14-18.  See  Gov- 
ernment. 

Sessions,  regular  and  special,  of  city 
council,  104 ;  of  State  legislature,  121- 
122;  of  Congress,  169. 

Sewerage  system,  51. 

Shakespeare,  57. 

Sheriff,  43-44,  95. 

Sherman  Anti-Trust  Act,  208-209. 

Shires,  in  England,  43. 

Silver,  coinage  of,  209-210 ;  silver  certifi 
cates,  211. 


INDEX 


-Sixteenth  amendment^  159. 

"  Slates,"  political,  37. 

Slavery,  prohibition  of,  in  the  North- 
west Territory,  221 ;  compromise  con- 
cerning the  slave  trade,  156;  abolition 
of  slavery,  159,  235. 

Smoke  consumers,  53. 

Solicitor,  city,  110. 

Speaker,  of  the  United  States  House  of 
Representatives,  169-170. 

Special  assessments,  145. 

Special  legislation  for  cities,  103. 

Special  sessions.    See  Sessions,  special. 
.  Speech,  freedom  of,  120,  158. 

Spoils  system,  in  cities,  111-112  ;  in  the 
national  administration,  186. 

Stamp  taxes,  137, 148,  230. 

State,  secretary  of  (federal),  188-189 ;  in 

commonwealths,  126. 
.States,  government  of,  10 ;  control  qf 
economic  interests,  75-88 ;  origin  of, 
117-119;  constitution  of,  118-1:^0;  leg- 
islative department,  120-124  ;  execu- 
tive department,  124-127;  judiciary, 
128-133;  power  over  crime,  129-131; 
administration  of  charities,  70-74; 
control  of  education,  57-68  ;  admis- 
sion to  Union,  119.  222  ;  relation  to 
other  States,  and  to  the  national  gov- 
ernment, 160,  222 ;  rural  local  govern- 
ment in,  90-96  ;  city  government  in, 
99-114;  powers  of,  123-124,  161 ;  pro- 
hibitions on,  162. 

Stockholders,  in  corporations,  86. 

Streets,  paving,  16, 82, 112, 114 ;  lighting, 

16,  51,  114  ;  cleaning,  51,  114. 
•Strikes.    See  Arbitration,  State  boards 
of ;  Order,  maintenance  of. 

Succession,  presidential,  183. 

Suffrage,  qualifications  for,  23, 121. 
;  Superintendent  of  schools,  in  cities,  64; 
county  superintendent,  63,  95;  State 
superintendent  or  commissioner,  66; 
federal  Commissioner  of  Education, 
68. 

Supervisor,  township,  96  ;  county,  95. 

Su]ireme  Court,  State,  composition  of, 
132;  power  to  decide  constitutionality 
of  legislation,  132  ;  judges  of,  132. 

Supreme  Court,  United  States.  See  Ju- 
diciary, federal. 

Tariff  duties,  how  levied,  146,  203-204; 
as  a  source  of  revenue,  146 ;  compro- 
mise tariff  legislation,  173 ;  policy  of 
protection,  204. 

-Taxes,  consent  of  the  people  necessary, 
137-138;  duty  of  paying,  180;  evasion 
of,  138;  classification  of,  140;  general 
property  tax,  140-144 ;  corporation  and 


business  taxes,  144 ;  licenses,  144 ;  poll 
or  capitation  taxes,  144-145;  inherit- 
ance taxes,  145  ;  import  or  tarilf  du- 
ties,146- .147;  excise  or  internal  revenue 
taxes,  147-148;  miscellaneous  taxes, 
148. 

Temperance  legislation,  53. 

Tender,  legal,  2u9,  and  note  1. 

Territories,  annexations  since  1789,  217- 
219;  territorial  i)oiicy  of  our  govern- 
ment, 219-222  ;  the  Ordinance  of  1787, 
220-221 ;  representative  territorial  gov- 
ernment, 221-222;  admission  to  the 
Union,  119,  222;  continental  territo- 
ries, 223;  insular  territories.  224-225; 
the  public  domain,  226-227. 

Texas,  acquisition  of,  218. 

Third  term  tradition,  the,  182. 

Thirteenth  amendment,  159. 

Towns,  origin  of,  6,  91 ;  characteristics 
of,  in  early  New  England,  6;  town- 
meeting  in  New  England,  6,  92,  94; 
government  of,  94;  oflBcers  of,  94. 

Township,  origin  of,  in  Middle  West, 
93;  township-county  system,  95-90. 

Trade.    See  Commerce. 

Trades  and  callings,  regulation  of,  53. 

Transportation.  See  Railroads;  Rail- 
ways, street. 

Treasurer,  county,  95, 143;  township, 96; 
city,  109;  State,  126, 

Treasury,  federal  department  of,  189, 211. 

Treaties,  165,  188, 

Trials,  judicial.  See  Procedure,  civil 
and  criminal. 

Trustees,  school,  62. 

Trustees,  township,  96. 

Trusts  and  industrial  combinations,  87, 
208-209. 

Tuberculosis,  55. 

Twelfth  amendment,  159. 

Unconstitutional  legislation.  See  Odd- 

stitutionality  of  legislation. 
Undervaluation  of  property,  141-142. 
Universal  Postal  Union,  the,  212. 
Universities,  State,  67. 
Urban.  See  City. 

Vagrants,  72. 

Valuation  of  property,  141-142. 

Verdict  of  jury,  129-130. 

Veto  power,  of  the  mayor,  105-108 ;  of 
the  governor,  123-126;  of  the  Presi- 
dent, 172. 

Vice-President,  of  the  United  States 
nomination  of,  178;  election  of,  179 
181 ;  salary  of,  182 ;  succession  to  thp 
presidency,  183;  presiding  officer  ok 
Senate,  183,  note  2. 


INDEX 


Virginia,  early  local  government  in, 
92. 

Voting,  methods  of,  in  Congress,  171. 

Voting,  qualifications  for,  23;  registra- 
tion of  voters,  25  ;  casting  and  count- 
ing the  ballots,  25-26;  duty  of  vot- 
ing, 20,  28;  independent  voting,  28, 54; 
stay-at-home  voters,  28. 

War,  cost  of,  237.  See  Military  powers ; 

Militia;  Civil  War. 
War,  Secretary  of,  190. 
Warrants,  arrest  on,  129. 


Washington,  D.  C,  163,  223. 
Washington,  George,  154, 155, 158. 
Water  supply,  city,  51;  106,  note  1;  112, 

114. 
Waterways,  83,  202-203. 
Wealth,  production  of,  75. 
Weather  Bureau,  190. 
Webster,  Daniel,  220. 
West  Point,  68. 
Woman's  suffrage,  23. 
Workhouse,  city,  46. 
Wrongs,   redress  of.    Se^  Procedure- 

civil  and  criminal. 


YB  31133 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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